Formative assessment Essay

Formative Assessment: raising standards inside the classroom Black. , P. (1998), provides a brief overview of the evidence, both qualitative and quantitative about the quality of teacher’s classroom assessment practices, about the effectiveness of good formative assessment in promoting pupil’s learning and the features of classroom assessment that enhances students learning. Paul Black carried out two practical inquiries in various schools. The first experiment involved twelve classes of thirty pupils each in two schools. This experiment work was structured around pupil’s tools of systematic and reasoned inquiry and greatly emphasized on student’s communication skills and peer assessment. The students were required to carry out a science group project which involved experimentation. The results showed that the students who had the best assessment process achieved the highest scores. This was only possible where students were able to communicate effectively with each other and were able to evaluate their own understanding of the concept being taught. Thus, the author showed that self- and peer assessment can be achieved by giving pupil’s opportunities to reflect their learning. Similarly, the second experiment involved forty eight eleven year old Israeli pupils from twelve classes across four schools where half of those selected being in the top quartile of their class on tests of mathematics and language and other half being in the lower quartile. They were taught materials not directly related to their normal curriculum, and given written tasks to be tackled individually under supervision, with an oral introduction and supervision. Then the pupil’s were divided into three groups and feedbacks were provided. The first group was given comments only, the second group was given grades only and the third group was given comments with grades. The research showed that for ‘comments only’ showed an increase in the performance of the students while the other two groups showed a significant decline in the scores across the three sessions. Therefore, this research article tries to show that if feedback comments are in principle, it is operationally helpful for a pupil’s work, and literature also indicates that ‘task-involving’ feedback is more effective than ‘ego-involving’ feedback. Likewise, the reports studied by Paul Black and his colleagues showed that formative assessment helps to enhance feedback between the students and the teacher as it increases new modes of pedagogy and will cause a significant changes in the classroom practices. Similarly, formative assessment increases pupil participation in the classroom and can help affect motivation and self-esteem of pupils. Therefore, effective teaching must be carried out in a classroom that will enhance students learning. However, posing of questions is a natural and direct way of checking on learning, but is often unproductive. It becomes important for teachers to generate good questions and this can be obtained from outside sources such as internet and library sources. Thus, teachers should ask themselves that: Do I really know enough about the understanding of my pupils to be able to help each of them? Therefore, what seems both obvious and problematic is that the whole area is at the heart of pedagogy and may have been appraised and shaped further in terms of a theory of larger scope to encompass school learning comprehensively. One of the limitations of this article is that this has not been attempted, so that what is here needs the discipline of a broader context. Thus, a classroom must be implemented that focuses on the policy for raising standards that will help improve formative assessment. (Black. , P. 1998. Formative assessment: raising standards inside the classroom. School Science Review.

Time and Life

Everyone wants to be successful in their own, different way. It is a mutual dream shared by all, to be rich and famous. In my perspective being successful is much different, because money is not everything. To make goals and follow your dreams will lead you down the road to success. Their will be bumps along the way, and you might have to take the harder road, but if you are willing to work hard and never give up, you will be successful. Like everyone, I have many dreams and goals that I would like to see myself accomplish during my life. I want to go to a great college and discover myself, what it truly means to be me.Then I will decide what I would like to spend the rest of my life doing because I honestly believe that, at my age, I do not contain within me the experiences necessary to determine what I want to be or what I want to do with my life. Given the opportunity, I would go into the ? eld of science to study biology or engineering to ? gure out how and why things work, livin g or not. But who knows? I might end up in a totally different ? eld, because wherever my heart goes, I am sure to follow. I want to go to a top school to start with a strong support in the world and to use this foundation to build my life upon.If the building blocks of my future are too small, I will be con? ned to certain things and not others that I would be able to reach with a bigger, sturdier base in knowledge. This will create limitless opportunities that may result in a great job. I want a job that pays well enough so that I could support a family, if I so choose. I want enough money to pay for little things in life, those that create great memories, but not so much that it will go to my head and make me a person that has worked so hard just to see himself become corrupt and sel? h. Above all I want to thank my parents for starting me off in the right direction, they gave up so much for me, because they instilled these values in me and made me who I am today. They have helpe d me this far, and they will help me in the years to come. Without them I would be nothing, and I believe that this deserves much more than simple thanks. My decisions will affect my future, whether it be the near future or in the long run. Seeing as I cannot predict the future, I will just have to work hard and make the right decisions.The right thing is not always the easiest thing to do, but is necessary if you want to reach your goals. The only obstacle that I see in the way of my future is myself. I can do anything I want if only I put my mind to it. But if I make the wrong choice and slack off, it is only that much harder to reach your goals. Another thing between my future and myself is time. Everything changes over time so it is only natural to believe that my short-term goals will too. But the things time cannot change are life long goals.The things you see yourself doing when you sit down and think of all the wondrous things in this world that makes you think what a miracl e life really is. Life is a gift bestowed upon us, and it is our choice to determine where it goes. My goals are what make up my life, what keep me determined to ? ght for the next day and the drive behind everything I do. My family plays a huge part in who I am, and my values. I want more than everything in my life to be successful, and for those I care about to be successful in their lives too.

BMW vs Mercedes Essay

Bayerische Motoren Werke AG Bayerische Motoren Werke AG ( English: Bavarian Motor Works), commonly known asBMW or BMW AG, is a German automobile, motorcycle and engine manufacturing company founded in 1916. BMW is headquartered in Munich, Bavaria, Germany. It also owns and produces Mini cars, and is the parent company ofRolls-Royce Motor Cars. BMW produces motorcycles under BMW Motorrad. In 2012, the BMW Group produced 1,845,186 automobiles and 117,109 motorcycles across all of its brands. BMW is part of the â€Å"German Big 3† luxury automakers, along with Audi and Mercedes-Benz, which are the three best-selling luxury automakers in the world. History BMW was established as a business entity following a restructuring of the Rapp Motorenwerke aircraft manufacturing firm in 1917. After the end of World War I in 1918, BMW was forced to cease aircraft-engine production by the terms of theVersailles Armistice Treaty.[5] The company consequently shifted to motorcycle production in 1923, once the restrictions of the treaty started to be lifted,[6] followed by automobiles in 1928–29.[7][8][9] The first car which BMW successfully produced and the car which launched BMW on the road to automobile production was the Dixi, it was based on the Austin 7 and licensed from the Austin Motor Company in Birmingham, England. BMW’s first significant aircraft engine was the BMW IIIa inline-six liquid-cooled engine of 1918, much preferred for its high-altitude performance.[10] With German rearmament in the 1930s, the company again began producing aircraft engines for theLuftwaffe. Among its successful World War II engine designs were the BM W 132 and BMW 801 air-cooled radial engines, and the pioneering BMW 003 axial-flow turbojet, which powered the tiny, 1944–1945–era jet-powered â€Å"emergency fighter†, theHeinkel He 162 Spatz. The BMW 003 jet engine was tested in the A-1b version of the world’s first jet fighter, theMesserschmitt Me 262, but BMW engines failed on takeoff, a major setback for the Emergency Fighter Program until successful testing with Junkers engines.[11][12] Towards the end of the Third Reich BMW developed some military aircraft projects for the Luftwaffe, the BMW Strahlbomber, the BMW Schnellbomber and the BMW Strahljà ¤ger, but none of them were built.[13][14] By the year 1959, the automotive division of BMW  was in financial difficulties and a shareholders meeting was held to decide whether to go into liquidation or find a way of carrying on. It was decided to carry on and to try to cash in on the current economy car boom enjoyed so successfully by some of Germanyà ¢â‚¬â„¢s ex-aircraft manufacturers such as Messerschmitt andHeinkel. The rights to manufacture the Italian Iso Isetta were bought; the tiny cars themselves were to be powered by a modified form of BMW’s own motorcycle engine. This was moderately successful and helped the company get back on its feet. The controlling majority shareholder of the BMW Aktiengesellschaft since 1959 is the Quandt family, which owns about 46% of the stock. The rest is in public float. Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz (German pronunciation: [mÉ›Ê Ã‹Ë†tÍ ¡seË dÉ™s ˈbÉ›ntÍ ¡s]) is a German automobile manufacturer, a multinational division of the German manufacturer Daimler AG. The brand is used for luxury automobiles, buses, coaches, and trucks. Mercedes-Benz is headquartered in Stuttgart, Baden-Wà ¼rttemberg, Germany. The name first appeared in 1926 under Daimler-Benz but traces its origins to Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft’s 1901Mercedes and to Karl Benz’s 1886 Benz Patent Motorwagen, which is widely regarded as the first automobile. Mercedes-Benz’s slogan is â€Å"Das Beste oder nichts† (English: â€Å"The best or nothing†). Mercedes-Benz is part of the â€Å"German Big 3† luxury automakers, along with Audi and BMW, which are the best selling luxury automakers in the world. Karl Benz in Mannheim, Germany  made the 1886 Benz Patent Motorwagen, which is widely regarded as the first automobile Mercedes-Benz traces its origins to Karl Benz’s creation of the first petrol-powered car, the Benz Patent Motorwagen, financed byBertha Benz[3] and patented in January 1886,[4] and Gottlieb Daimler and engineer Wilhelm Maybach’s conversion of a stagecoach by the addition of a petrol engine later that year. The Mercedes automobile was first marketed in 1901 by Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft. The first Mercedes-Benz brand name vehicles were produced in 1926, following the merger of Karl Benz’s and Gottlieb Daimler’s companies into the Daimler-Benz company.[1][4] Throughout the 1930s, Mercedes-Benz produced the 770 model, a car that was popular during Germany’s Nazi period. Adolf Hitler was known to have driven these cars  during his time in power, with bulletproofwindshields. Most of the surviving models have been sold at auctions t o private buyers. One of them is currently on display at the War Museum in Ottawa, Ontario. Mercedes-Benz has introduced many technological and safety innovations that later became common in other vehicles.[5] Mercedes-Benz is one of the best known and established automotive brands in the world, and is also one of the world’s oldest automotive brand still in existence today in 2014, having produced the first petrol-powered car.[6] For information relating to the famous three-pointed star, see under the title Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft including the merger into Daimler-Benz. PRODUCT MIX OF BMW BMW is one of the preeminent luxury car manufacturers in Europe, North America, and the world today. BMW produces several lines of cars, including the 3 series, the 5 series, the 7 series, the Z line (driven by Pierce Brosnan as James Bond in Goldeneye), and the new X line, BMW’s â€Å"sport activity† vehicle line. In addition, BMW is now selling Rovers, a British car line anchored by the internationally popular Land Rover sport utility vehicle, and will begin selling Rolls Royce vehicles in 2003. Sales of all the BMW, Rover, and Land Rover vehicles have been on the rise globally. High-profile image campaigns (such as the James Bond promotion) and the award-winning BMW website (where users can design their own car) continue to increase the popularity of BMW’s products. PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE BMW cars typically have a product life cycle of seven years. Motorcycles BMW began production of motorcycle engines and then motorcycles after World War I.[23] Its motorcycle brand is now known as BMW Motorrad. Their first successful motorcycle, after the failed Helios and Flink, was the â€Å"R32† in 1923. This had a â€Å"boxer† twin engine, in which a cylinder projects into the air-flow from each side of the machine. Apart from their single-cylinder models (basically to the same pattern), all their motorcycles used this distinctive layout until the early 1980s. Many BMWs are still produced in this layout, which is designated the R Series. During the Second World War, BMW produced the BMW R75 motorcycle with a sidecar attached. Having a unique design copied from the Zà ¼ndapp KS750, its sidecar wheel was also motor-driven. Combined with a lockable differential, this made the vehicle  very capable off-road, an equivalent in many ways to the Jeep. In 1982, came the K Series, shaft drive but water-cooled and with either three or four cylin ders mounted in a straight line from front to back. Shortly after, BMW also started making the chain-driven F and G series with single and parallel twin Rotaxengines. In the early 1990s, BMW updated the airhead Boxer engine which became known as the oilhead. In 2002, the oilhead engine had two spark plugs per cylinder. In 2004 it added a built-in balance shaft, an increased capacity to 1,170 cc and enhanced performance to 100 hp (75 kW) for the R1200GS, compared to 85 hp (63 kW) of the previous R1150GS. More powerful variants of the oilhead engines are available in the R1100S and R1200S, producing 98 hp (73 kW) and 122 hp (91 kW), respectively. BMW introduced anti-lock brakes on production motorcycles starting in the late 1980s. The generation of anti-lock brakes available on the 2006 and later BMW motorcycles pave the way for the introduction of electronic stability control, or anti-skid technology later in the 2007 model year. Automobiles The New Class (German: Neue Klasse) was a line of compact sedans and coupes starting with the 1962 1500 and continuing through the last 2002s in 1977. Powered by BMW’s celebrated four-cylinder M10 engine, the New Class models had a fully independent suspension, MacPherson struts in front, and front disc brakes. Initially a family of four-door sedans and two-door coupes, the New Class line was broadened to two-door sports sedans with the addition of the 02 Series1600 and 2002 in 1966. Sharing little in common with the rest of the line beyond power train, the sporty siblings caught auto enthusiasts’ attention and established BMW as an international brand. Precursors to the famed BMW 3 Series, the two-doors’ success cemented the firm’s future as an upper tier performance car maker. New Class four-doors with numbers ending in â€Å"0† were replaced by the larger BMW 5 Series in 1972. The upscale 2000C and 2000CS coupes were replaced by the six-cylinder BMW E9, introduced in 1969 with the 2800CS. The 1600 two-door was discontinued in 1975, and the 2002 was replaced by the 320i in 1975. The 1 Series, originally launched in 2004, is BMW’s smallest car. Currently available are the second generation hatchback (F20) and first generation coupe/convertible (E82/E88). The 3 Series, a compact executive car manufactured since model year 1975, is currently in its sixth generation (F30); models include the sport sedan  (F30), and fourth generation station wagon (F30), and convertible (E93), and the Gran Turismo. In 2014, the 4 Series will be released and replace the 3 Series Coupe and Convertible. The 5 Series is a mid-size executive car, available in sedan (F10) and station wagon (F11) forms. The 5 Series Gran Turismo (F07), which debuted in 2010, created a segment between station wagons and crossover SUV.[24] BMW’s full-size flagship executive sedan is the 7 Series. Typically, BMW introduces many of their innovations first in the 7 Series, such as the iDrive system. The 7 Series Hydrogen, having one of the world’s first hydrogen fueled internal combustion engines, is fueled by liquid hydrogen and emits only clean water vapor. The latest generation (F01) debuted in 2009. Based on the 5 Series’ platform, the 6 Series is BMW’s grand touring luxury sport coupe/convertible (F12/F13). A 2-seater roadsterand coupe which succeeded the Z3, the Z4 has been sold since 2002. Motorsport BMW has been engaged in motorsport activities since the dawn of the first BMW motorcycle in 1923. BMW has a history of success in Formula One. BMW powered cars have won 20 races. In 2006 BMW took over the Sauberteam and became Formula One constructors. In 2007 and 2008 the team enjoyed some success. The most recent win is a lone constructor team’s victory by BMW Sauber F1 Team, on 8 June 2008, at the Canadian Grand Prix with Robert Kubicadriving. BMW was an engine supplier to Williams, Benetton, Brabham, and Arrows. Notable drivers who have started their Formula One careers with BMW include Jenson Button, Juan Pablo Montoya, Robert Kubica and Sebastian Vettel. In July 2009, BMW announced that it would withdraw from Formula One at the end of the 2009 season.[27] The team was sold back to the previous owner, Peter Sauber, who kept the BMW part of the name for the 2010 season due to issues with theConcorde Agreement. The team has since dropped BMW from their name starting in 2011 . Public Relations Effective public relations need to play an integral part in BMW marketing strategy. It is important for BMW to maintain regular contact with all organisational stakeholders with the use of various marketing communication channels. Specifically, communication channels used in public relations include, but not limited to online press releases, annual reports, speeches,  and seminars. As part of their corporate social responsibility initiatives BMW management is also recommended to increase the level of its association with local charities in the UK such as Oxfam, NSPCC, or Cancer Research UK. Moreover, BMW management can initiate the development of identity magazine of the BMW Group which can cover the latest trends and news in local and global automobile industry and at the same time serve as an effective channel to communicate the marketing message to the target customer segment. Advertising Advertising can be defined as â€Å"the activity or profession of producing information for promoting the sale of commercial products or services† (Business Dictionary, 2013, online). BMW is recommended to be communicating its marketing message to target customer segment on the basis of using a set of advertising channels. Specifically, engagement in print and broadcast advertisement through channels popular amongst BMW target customer segment needs to be adopted as one of the cores of the marketing strategy. Advertising banners need to be displayed in locations in London frequently attended by BMW target customer segment such as Canary Wharf and City. Moreover, BMW marketing team is recommended to be improving the quality of point-of-sales advertising through supplying audio, video and image materials that motivate salon visitors to commit to the purchase. Sales Promotion Sales promotion involves offering short-term incentives for potential customers to commit to the purchase of products and services. BMW Group is recommended to use sales promotion in the UK market in an occasional manner in order to increase the levels of revenues for short-term perspectives. For example, 100th anniversary of BMW on March 7, 2013 can be specified as an appropriate occasion to announce 10% sales promotion for all BMW models. However, it is important to note that BMW needs to engage in sales promotions in the UK market only in an occasional manner, no more than once a year, because using sales promotion more frequently may cause depreciation of BMW premium brand value. PRICING STRATEGY The prices of BMW Group are based on a differentiated strategy. This means  that they charge extra for premium quality. This difference in prices is due to each cars different engine size, gear levels, fuel consumption, sports version. The pricing strategy that the BMW Group adopts is based on several key trends. One most important trend of BMW is labeled as â€Å"premium-tization†. Premium-tization trend of BMW causes polarization of markets. This trend triggers the consumers to demand and pay much higher prices for the perceived quality. SWOT ANALYSIS OF BMW GROUP A SWOT analysis will be used to see the various Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats of the BMW Group. Strengths: Strong marketing strategy. Customers recognize the strong brand name of BMW Group Company. Strong brand image i.e. BMW, MINI Cooper and Rolls Royce. Every 2 to 3 years BMW introduces its new version of cars i.e. constant innovation and technology. Weaknesses: There is an increasing number of duplicate spare parts of BMW and MINI Cooper. The manufacturing costs of BMW cars are very high as compared to its competitors. This is also a reason for high pricing of BMW cars. Not a mass market company like Toyota and their volumes are small. Opportunities There is an opportunity for BMW Group to increase further innovation and technology in their cars due to increasing competition in car industry. BMW Group should also look to make new collaboration with other car manufacturers i.e. introducing new brands. BMW Group should also look to produce cheaper cars by new innovation and technology. Expansion of the BMW Group in Asia Pacific, Asia, Africa and Australia. Threats Recession which has affected businesses in every part of the world. To maintain the same level of innovation and performance.  The growing competition in the automobile industry i.e. competitors of BMW Group include Mercedes, Audi, Jaguar, Ford, Lexus. The earnings of the BMW Group are Dollar dominated, so the increasing strength of Euro is another  threat for the company. DISTRIBUTION CHANNEL BMW Welt focuses on strengthening the dialogue with customers and visitors by showing a wide range of BMW cars and motorcycles, and providing vehicle distribution, particularly the creation of a special experience with regards to customer collection of an ordered vehicle. BMW Welt also offers shops with BMW auxiliary products, as well as a fully serviced gastronomic restaurant. In the meeting forum, BMW Welt offers conference rooms and the opportunity to stage media events. The building often houses exhibitions related to new BMW models and, since 2012, other BMW Group brands such as Mini and Rolls-Royce BMW plans a new distribution system for the 5-series sedan that will keep some of the vehicles allocated to dealerships in one of three locations around the country. The distribution system would give dealers pools of cars in three locations, said Miles. Rather than ship each dealership’s total monthly allocation to the store, some of the cars will be kept at BMW processing fa cilities on both coasts and in the South. â€Å"The basic principle is to make more of the inventory that exists available to sell and to reduce the dealers’ floorplan cost,† MERCEDES PRODUCT RANGE  VANS Mercedes-Benz Vans sets standards through perfection and meticulous attention to detail. Ground-breaking innovations and excellent value retention are decisive for the brand’s success. With its broad spectrum of offers the brand can really score points with the customer.The Mercedes-Benz Vans product spectrum includes vans, MPVs and camper vans for private and commercial use. Mercedes-Benz Vans stands for sustainable technologies. In particular the new Mercedes-Benz Sprinter, introduced in the spring of 2013, was equipped with technologies that make it even more frugal and environmentally compatible. Whether for a private or commercial customer – Mercedes-Benz Vans is focused on customisation according to the customer’s needs. Although each customer is different, one thing applies to all in the same measure: Mercedes-Benz Vans delivers the best possible solution. TRUCKS As part of the Daimler Trucks division, Mercedes-Benz Trucks has been a hallmark of premium quality for over 100 years now. It stands not only for reliability and economic efficiency, but also for first-class product and service quality and comprehensive expertise in the area of customer-oriented transport solutions. The high standard of quality applies equally to our Actros, Arocs, Axor, Antos and Atego truck series and to special-purpose vehicles from Mercedes-Benz Trucks. The latter include the Mercedes-Benz Econic and the legendary Unimog, for example. Our comprehensive range is rounded off by the Mercedes-Benz Zetros, which has been designed as an off-road truck for deployment in extremely rough terrain. BUSES The world’s first motorised bus was built in Germany by Karl Benz in 1895, some years before Gottlieb Daimler also started to build and sell buses in Germany as well. By 1898 both Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler, then rivals, were exporting their buses to Wales and England. Soon Daimler products were sold in the British Empire in a partnership with the British company Milnes. Milnes-Daimler developed a double-decker in 1902 and provided a bus for the first motorised bus service in the United Kingdom the following year. Though the company met success in selling buses throughout the British Empire, the partnership between Daimler and Milnes had to be undone due to the First World War. CARS Mercedes-Benz carries a full range of passenger, light commercial and heavy commercial equipment. Vehicles are manufactured in multiple countries worldwide. The Smart marque of city cars and Maybach luxury cars are also produced by Daimler AG. Between 2003 and 2009, Mercedes-Benz produced a limited-production sports car with McLaren Cars. The resulting Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren was an extension of the collaboration by which Mercedes engines are used by the Team McLaren-Mercedes Formula One racing team, which was then part owned by Mercedes. SWOT ANALYSIS OF MERCEDES Strength: 1. Mercedes Benz has a strong brand value and global leader in premium cars 2. Lack of capital constraints 3. Leader in innovation i.e. 1st to introduce diesel engines, fuel injection and anti locking brakes 4. More than $12bn allocated for R&D 5. Strong presence in motor sport under McLaren Mercedes 6. Manufactured and assembled in over 20 countries across the world 7. Mercedes holds patents on the majority of safety features Weakness 8. High maintenance cost of Mercedes Benz cars Opportunity: 1. Developing hybrid cars and fuel efficient cars for the future 2. Tapping emerging markets across the world and building a global brand 3. Fast growing luxury automobile market & increased income Threats: 1. Government policies for the automobile sector across the world 2. Ever increasing fuel prices 3. Intense competition from global automobile brands

Identities and globalization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Identities and globalization - Essay Example elop a global identity that gives them a sense of belonging to a worldwide culture and includes an awareness of the events, practices, styles, and information that are part of the global culture† (Arnett, 2002, p. 777). In this quote, the author states that most people in the world, especially young people are the ones who are facing the challenge where they have to adopt both the global and local identity. This challenge sometimes can lead to a â€Å"hybrid identity† which is described as a mixture of both the local and global culture (Arnett, 2002, p. 778). However, the author does not provide an explanation and examples of the psychological impact of this bicultural identity in young peoples daily lives. Even though he covered this aspect, on the identity confusion section about how people can feel excluded from a society or alienated, he did not provide us with a strong example about the psychological impact of the bicultural identity. By mentioning the psychological impact of the bicultural identity in his essay, it will make readers engage and care more about this topic. One of the prominent issues described by the author in the article is on bicultural identities. The form of identity is noted as affecting young people from different parts of the world especially those from non-western countries. The author notes that in this new form of identity, people have a part of their identity rooted in their local culture while the other part is influenced by global culture (Arnett, 2002). The argument on this identity is based on increased global consciousness that is taking place in many children and adolescents. First, the author notes that children have started growing developing conscious based on the things that they observe in the world. As a result, the world things continue to influence children more in comparison to the things that take place in a local environment. As the author indicates, â€Å"Young people develop a global identity that gives them a

The Coursework is concerned with the new coalition Government's Essay

The Coursework is concerned with the new coalition Government's Localism Bill, a major piece of legislation that will affect a - Essay Example The fact is, a planning process determines who can construct and what they can construct as well as how and where that construction can be conducted. This report will identify the main planning contents of the Localism Bill, provide an analysis of the Bill’s impact on the chief stakeholders impacted by the proposed planning reforms and provide an appraisal of the winners and losers should the Bill become law. Finally, this report having identified the key planning contents of the Bill, stakeholder interests and winners and losers, a list of recommendations for achieving the Bill’s purpose will be provided. A. The Proposed Planning Procedures under the Localism Bill The Department for Communities and Local Government reports that the planning provisions of the Localism Bill is designed to â€Å"make the planning system clearer, more democratic, and more effective†.1 The first step in that direction is the abrogation of regional focus which are currently strategize d to identify parts of England and Wales that require new development. This includes targeting specific areas which have been identified by the central government. Local communities and their populations have very little input with respect to these strategies. The government has determined that regional strategies is not only â€Å"bureaucratic†, but also â€Å"undemocratic†.2 Part 5 of the Localism Bill 2010 will therefore set out to abrogate regional strategies.3 Part 5 of the Localism Bill also intends to address the current planning framework’s instructive and dictator approach by introducing neighbourhood planning.4 In other words, rather than being told by the Government what should be built and where and â€Å"how they should look,† the Localism Bill will confer upon communities the right to compose its own â€Å"neighbourhood development plan†.5 Local populations are at liberty to vote by virtue of referendum on a neighbourhood development plan if it is consistent with the country’s policy for planning and the â€Å"strategic vision for the wider area by the local authority and with other legal requirements†.6 This immediately invites questions as to whether local populations are qualified to make this kind of determination. Should the majority choose a neighbourhood development plan that is inconsistent with the country’s policy, the law, or the local authority’s vision for the wider area, the neighbourhood is ultimately left with no neighbourhood plan and will have to plan and vote all over again. A lot of time can be wasted this way and will defeat the purpose of the planning provisions under the Localism Bill relative to saving time in the planning process. Although the Localism Bill requires that local planning official lend technical support to neighbourhoods in planning their neighbourhood’s development, there is no guarantee that this support will be accepted or understood. I n addition, individual minds may be made up and no amount of advice and support will change those minds. The community’s right to build is also a novel idea and will only provide for neighbourhood development. Under Part 5 of the Localism Bill, individual groups will have the opportunity to put forth smaller development projects. These projects can include businesses, shops and dwelling houses. All benefits deriving from these projects will remain within the community.7 Part 5 of

Principles and Practices of Effective Leadership - D2- D8 Essay

Principles and Practices of Effective Leadership - D2- D8 - Essay Example This therefore means that this organization setting, the holistic process has been affected because the chain of communication between the various departments is broken down and ineffective. In brief there is no clear communication channel. To resolve this problem guided by the systems theory of organization, leaders can cultivate their emotional intelligence and behavior change that energizes and motivates the workers to change. This may include aspects such as developing better personal relationships between the workers by giving them collective tasks to perform as a general way of engaging and also participating holistically in the leadership of the organization (Bryman, 2011). References Bryman, A. (2011). The SAGE handbook of leadership. London: SAGE. Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2007). The leadership challenge (4th Ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. How great leader performs and what they do when in leadership all depends on the ability to overcome obstacles through their behavior and response to the internal and external forces which are entirely dependent on their emotional capabilities. The fundamental factors pertaining to the power of emotional intelligence that defines the quality of a leader are grouped into categories which are self awareness, self management, social awareness, relationship management, conflict resolution and decision making skills (Goleman, et all, 2007). The core strengths of these categories are the aspects that are inward looking which are self awareness, self management, and conflict resolution. This is so because when a leader is able to communicate and manage him or herself appropriately from within, it means that the leader will respond to externalities effectively and appropriately. The externalities here are social awareness and relationship management, which constitute of organization, profession, country, city or the world in real life. The latter therefore becomes an emotional effective leader because from withi n himself or herself he/she uses the inward looking aspects within the outward looking aspects (externalities) in decision making and reasoning (Hughes et all,2005). It is true that through one’s lifetime he/she gets to encounter new experiences and challenges that contribute to mold one as an effective or ineffective leader. This makes it crucial for leaders to take a bold step towards understanding and learning the power of emotions, especially the inward looking aspect, in controlling their daily experiences as this is what directs their judgment and decision making. References Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R. E., & McKee, A. (2007). Cram101 textbook outlines to accompany: primal leadership : learning to lead with emotional intelligence, 1st ed.. Moorpark, Calif.: Academic Internet Publishers. Hughes, M. M., Patterson, L. B., & Terrell, J. B. (2005). Emotional intelligence in action: training and coaching activities for leaders and managers. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Rewards are h onors or benefits given to workers for motivational purposes. They are grouped into extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. Extrinsic rewards are basically financial tangible rewards given to employees such as bonuses, pay rise and benefits. Intrinsic rewards on the other hand are the psychological rewards given to employees for performing a commendable job. The rewards can be positively used to make employees enthusiastic and appreciated, building

Open Source vs. proprietary solutions. A horror story about IT Essay

Open Source vs. proprietary solutions. A horror story about IT implementation gone bad. Ethical problems with a new Information Technology - Essay Example This software has a calendar, password, notification for coming period and ovulation, it is multi user and it uses multiple languages. One is supposed to feed necessary data in it, for instance when she had sex, took pills, when the period started and when it ended. Long gone are the days when one had to literally mark a calendar which is not as portable as your phone, thus keeping track of your physiological changes was a hectic task. Christians believe that life starts at conception; therefore an abortion is a murderous act that is actually punishable by God. Health complications do result in prescribed abortion so as to save a life, but the leading cause of abortion in the society today is unwanted pregnancy. However, unwanted pregnancies do occur due to unruly sexual habits or ignorance on your body’s state. My day app enables ladies to keep track of their periods and ovulation, this therefore enables them to be responsible in their sexual behavior and it could be used as a family planning strategy for married people. However, the good will of this app’s inventor has been compromised. It is factual that teenagers tend to be more experimental than theoretical. Girls at teenage can use this software to hide their immoral sexual habits. They might become lose and careless since they are assured of not getting pregnant. Therefore, the society will have a difficult time to cope with these teenagers than the situation initially was; since many teenagers were scared of getting pregnant at a tender age, now that the risk is predictable controlling their sexual behavior is a difficult task that parents of this era should learn to leave

How old are the rocks of the Lewisian Complex in NW Scotland, and how Essay

How old are the rocks of the Lewisian Complex in NW Scotland, and how do we know - Essay Example This was followed by the new rocks folding and heating, and the intrusion of further magmas during the metamorphism, resulting in almost all the rocks being gneisses (Waters, 2003). The Lewisian Gneiss are a major division of Precambrian rocks (4.6 billion to 542 million years ago) in northwestern Scotland. In the region where the Lewisian rocks are found, they also form the lowermost rocks, also the Outer Hebrides, form the islands of Coll and Tiree, and are exposed along the northwestern coast of Scotland. â€Å"The oldest rocks of the Lewisian have been dated by radiometric technique between 2.4 billion and 2.6 billion years old, whereas the youngest Lewisian rocks have been dated at 1.6 billion years (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2010). Further, the Lewisian Complex form the oldest rocks of the British Isles, and are Mid- to Late- Archaen in age (Jones15). Most of these rocks are deformed and metamorphosed igneous rocks or orthogneisses. The types of rocks found in the Lewisian Comples are broadly subdivided into felsic gneisses which have a high content of light coloured minerals, mafic gneisses with a large proportion of dark mafic minerals, and ultramafic gneisses containing purely mafic minerals. Usually, the most highly abundant felsic gneisses develop from acidic igneous rocks, and mafic gneisses from basic igneous rocks. â€Å"Mafic and ultramafic gneisses are generally found together in this part of the Lewisian Complex, and are considered to be metamorphosed varieties of gabbro and peridotite† (Waters, 2003). The Lewisian Complex has been subjected to successive developments in techniques of age determination. There has been progressive tightening of constraints from Rb-Sr (rubidium/ strontium), K-Ar mineral (potassium/ argon) mineral dating, Rb-Sr and Pb-Pb (lead) whole rock studies through U-Pb dating of bulk zircon fractions, Sm-Nd rock and mineral investigation, to the most

The Effects of Earthquakes on People and Property Essay

The Effects of Earthquakes on People and Property - Essay Example They believed that the earth floats on the sea and whenever it is agitated, earthquakes are produced. And, the best story that portrays the damages caused by earthquakes is that of the people from Peru. They believe that earthquakes occur whenever their god visits the earth to count the number of people in it. As he does so, the people leave their houses in order to help him finish his work faster and keep themselves safe at the same time. Even now, in the present, people have created some myths that describe the damages caused by earthquakes. One of them is that of the Swallowing Earth which theorized that a chasm can form along the fault and anything and anyone in that vicinity can be swallowed by the earth. No one, however, has been reported to have died from such a fate. Contrary to the myths that were presented in this introduction, this paper will focus on the documented damages caused by earthquakes. The two major effects caused by earthquakes are shaking and ground rupture. This can lead to damages to buildings and other rigid structures. The intensity of the damage is defined by the magnitude of the earthquake, the distance of the area from the epicenter or the origin of an earthquake, and the geological and geomorphological conditions of the location which can significantly increase or decrease the propagation of the waves generated by an earthquake. When there is an earthquake, the area where the epicenter is located is usually the most damaged. This can be clearly described by a graph made by a Japanese engineer, Shigeru Tani, that showed the relationship of the damage percentage of the fill dams in Japan to the distance of the epicenter. According to the graph, the farther the fill dams are from the epicenter, the lesser the damage is. There are some exceptions to this rule, however. There are times when the biggest damage can occur away from the epicenter. A very good example would be the Denali Fault Earthquake in Alaska which happened in November 3, 2002. In this case, the area 330 kilometers away from the epicenter received the greatest damage. Since the location was sparsely populated, there were no deaths and there was little damage on the structures. A facility which is 40 miles from the eastern part of the fault rupture was damaged such that it was no longer usable. This was the runway of the Northway Airport which was damaged by lateral spreading and sand boils. Fortunately, none of the oil pipes in the ruptured areas were destroyed during the earthquake. The worst thing about earthquakes is that they do not choose the structures that they bring down. Many buildings, dams and roads have been damage by earthquakes. Even historical sites are not saved from this disaster. In Israel, an earthquake which has an intensity of 5.3, shook the Temple Mount, opening up a large hole. In addition to the damages caused by shaking and ground rupture, earthquakes can also cause landslides and avalanches. A very good example of this is the January 13 earthquake in El Salvador which had an intensity of

Guido of Arezzo A change in Music History Research Paper

Guido of Arezzo A change in Music History - Research Paper Example For a 10 year period from approximately 1015 to the time he left Pompey, there is very little documented reference to his life. (Adduci) He left the Monastery in 1025 because of his undocumented (musical) differences.The church wanted to maintain the oral tradition. They were threatened by innovation. Losing control over the chants would give more power to the people to compose. The church had recognized a sort of power by forbidding any composition other than church composition. After leaving Pompey, he went to Arezzo where he was given a job as teacher in the cathedral and possibly regain his previous job as cantor. He lived there until his death until 1050. During this time he wrote treatises, his famous hand and changed the staff system of notation.Music notation in the 10th century was complicated and not comprehensible to the majority of the catholic monks. It was mostly an oral tradition that was common in most cultures. In the Hebrew Torah, the voice rises and lowers accordin g to a notation that is learned through oral tradition today. The use of lines and dots was common to the Greeks also. The neumes could only be read by a select few. It was highly improbable that the chants of the Northern cathedrals were recognizable by Rome. As they only indicated the direction of the voice, the sound of the chant changed depending on the region of the church. The same chant sung in Northern Europe would not sound the same as it would in Rome. The neumes showed the inflection and descent of the voice.... He lived there until his death until 1050. During this time he wrote treatises, his famous hand and changed the staff system of notation. Music notation in the 10th century was complicated and non comprehensible to the majority of the catholic monks. It was mostly an oral tradition that was common in most cultures. In the Hebrew Torah, the voice rises and lowers according to a notation that is learned through oral tradition today. The use of lines and dots was common to the Greeks also. The neumes could only be read by a select few. It was highly improbable that the chants of the Northern cathedrals were recognizable by Rome. As they only indicated the direction of the voice, the sound of the chant changed depending on the region of the church. The same chant sung in Northern Europe would not sound the same as it would in Rome. The neumes showed the inflection and descent of the voice. The development of early church notation lead towards fewer and fewer monks chanting. As the church grew there were fewer men to pass on the oral tradition. The first illustration shows the lines of the neumes. Guido d'Arrezo A change in Musical History Early notation of pre d'Azzero church chants were signs above the words. The inflection of the voice were indicated by complicated, non standardized notation which had been used for generation upon generation. There are factures which must be taken into consideration as to the difficulty of the form of notation. The chanting was only allowed to be performed by the Church. Each chant was passed from one generation to another. The notation was based on the inflection of the voice not on changes of tone. Church documents were limited due to fewer and

How did the wars between the French Republic and the monarchies of Research Paper

How did the wars between the French Republic and the monarchies of Europe lead to the Terror and the Napoleonic Empire - Research Paper Example This war was later dominated by Napoleon who fought against the seven coalitions of European states. The origin of this war trace back to the ousting of the monarchy Louis XVI by the revolution (Wilde 1). The revolution installed a government that was not favorable with the rest of Europe. This led to ideological differences as the monarchies and empires were against the newly instituted rule. There was objection from the families and relatives of affected individuals. The nations of central Europe were against declaration issued by Austria and Prussia in 1791 of restoring the monarchy as they had an interest of dividing Poland amongst them (Waller 75). In fact, they changed the wording of declaration of Pillnitz so that they could avoid war. However, France misunderstood the document and launched a protective mechanism against the nations on April 1792 (Wilde 1). Initially, the war was faced by difficulties especially after an invading Germany took Verdum and moved close to Paris. H owever, the French managed to push the advancing enemies back. On November 19 of the same year, the National Convention assisted people who were willing to regain their lost freedom (Wilde 1). This was a justification to the creation of allied buffer zones around France. On December 15 on the same year, they made a vow that the revolutionary laws of France were to be advanced abroad by use of their armies. Additionally, France engaged in an initiative of territorial expansion. They felt that they would be protected by opposing and overthrowing any king in authority. Consequently, the association of European state came together to oppose these developments as a first coalition (Waller 75). This led to combat that lasted over two decades that eventually led to the fall of the revolution. This paper seeks to focus on how the war led to the terror and the Napoleonic Empire. Reign of Terror The war between the French republic and monarchies of Europe led to the rise of the reign of terro r. This reign lasted from 1789 to 1799. When France went to war against Austria, there was a need for more men to fight the approaching enemy. As a result, Danton that called for more men to join the French army instituted a convention. This led to serious revolts that were against the deliberations of the convention. Major revolts were experienced in Vendee as the peasants defied the authority of the meeting and design of revolution (Bastille Day History 1). They agitated for the reestablishment of the monarchy. They led to rise of civil war between the Vendeen and the guards of the established republic. As a result, over 100, 000 people died (Bastille Day History 1). On April 6 1793, a committee was created and led to the establishment of the new government led by Robespierre. Serious measures were put to counter resistance locally and French military defeats in Belgium. The Girondists were accused of military crisis, and 22 of its members were guillotined (Bastille Day History 1) . This was the decline of the true revolution ideas. The reign of terror spread to the rest of the country on September 1793. Consequently, hundreds of French were killed to instill frightening trend of anger and decadence. Those perceived to be the enemy of the revolution were arrested and executed without trial. This led to the death of over 40,000 people in a period of 15 months (Bastille Day History 1). The period after this saw the death of many other people through Guillotine. One of those was the wife of

Associate Level Material Essay Example for Free

Associate Level Material Essay Directions: Choose one of the Facts for Consideration sections from Ch. 3 of the text and list the page number for the section you chose. Then, complete the following table. List five threats appropriate to the environment from the section you chose. Rate the risk for each threat from 0 (low) to 10 (high). Then, list five appropriate countermeasures. Once you complete the table, write a brief explanation of the countermeasures for the two threats with the highest risk total, stating how the countermeasure reduces the risk associated with that threat. The inmate escape is very important. If there are extra guards then it will be easy to prevent this from happening, especially since some trips can take up to 48 hours to complete. With all the stopping (two to eight stops on any given trip) and going it would be great to have the countermeasure. When it  comes to inmates taking over the van, I feel as though that is something that can happen even if there are two officers on the van. Inmates are strong and they always have something up their sleeves. So if we were to take the countermeasure and actually have them checked before they get on the van and then handcuffed it makes the ride safer and less threatening.

Effects of Natural Disasters | Essay

Effects of Natural Disasters | Essay Disaster can be categorized according to many situations like it can be defined as the state of war that communities react globally against aggression. It can be an expression of vulnerability. We can also say that disaster is a state of uncertainty. Thus the consequences of any kind of disaster are so great that they cant be ignored and the responsibility comes to the government account. SAMPLE DISASTERS The disaster can be of any kind. We can say any unlike activity. It may be according to natural forces for example earthquakes, flooding, extreme temperature, environmental hazards, fires, cyclones. It can be technical failures causing the system pause and also the ongoing activities cease. Disaster can be graded as a human interference like crimes and explosion. Now a day globally we are exposed to all kind of disasters including both geographical and humanly created mess. Like flood that come in Chicago in April 13, 1992 destroyed 230 buildings and all the power supply was damaged badly. If we talk about the World trade Centre explosion in February 26, 1993 the destruction mainly affects the business in the centre and there was no margin to take precaution. The earthquake in San Francisco o 18, October, 1989 damaged the bay bridge which has stressed the business in the city because the bridge is collapsed and all business in the city was stopped. Similarly the hurricanes Andrew tha t arrived in the south Florida area made destruction to extents that end almost every activity. Thus disaster in any shape proven to be the worst experience no matter where it comes. Impact of Natural disaster on environment Natural disaster is any inevitable event that affects the environment. It not only results in mass loss of human lives but also adversely affect the economy of the region. Natural disasters have long history of occurrence which cannot be predicted, nor can it be avoided. Many researchers state that that disaster is interrupted the state in which social fabric is disrupted and becomes dysfunctional to a greater or lesser extent. Many recent disaster e.g. tsunami in Indian ocean in 2004, earth quake in Pakistan in 2005, and Haiti earthquake in 2010 are thoroughly discussed in print and electronic media, yet our understanding of its economic impact and recovery plan is quiet premature. This topic highlights the effects of natural disaster on a region. For the impacts and its metigation its very much important that we should know the magnitude of the disaster. The area that is directly affected and indirectly affected. Directly means the place where it actually happens and indirectly refers to the surrounding environment that is near with the disaster place. As in disaster the people move to other safe places for their survival. It stresses the other city in every account like to manage the space, food, and other life facilities to start their normal life again. PREPAREDNESS FOR DISASTER: For all these the government work and try very hard to cope up with situation. In some countries already disaster management cell are functional and in some countries we can see the law and order and they immediately respond to such dilemma. We also have such examples that there are recovery plans for disasters but the issues are that these plans are outdated. The trained people are less in number. It takes too much time to implement. Its not an easy task. Mostly we see that short term plans are prepared and acted on it. The requirement for the successful disaster management activity is the cooperation by the effected people as well as the rest of the society. So far we see all over the world people generously participate for the disasters and try really hard to help the effecties. They really come up with practical potentials that sort the worst matter. Monitoring is also important after the measures because the effected people settlement may take years. In the disaster area collect ive stress is being created. Like some places that are easily approachable and some are far enough for the team to reach there for rescue. The government should be clear where to place the emergency cell and how it will work and they must communicate properly to the effectives and rest of the society the methodology. So that the interested people to help the victims and they should know the reality too. All this information can be transmitted by the satellites, good telecommunication system in the area. NATURAL DISASTERS IN PAKISTAN Pakistan is the country that has esthetically beautiful landscapes featuring mountains. River plains, desert track and 960 Kilometer coastal area that exposed it to natural disasters. One of the reasons for disasters is that Pakistan is located in the region thats on the Indian plate that collides with the Eurasian plate and its not getting mature geographically up till now. Disaster cycles that are very common in the geographical history are predominantly flood, drought also persist, high intensity rain spell, earthquakes, cyclones and tsunami. Socially vulnerability and also the diseases are also the issues that to be deal with the natural disasters. Historically if we figure out the disasters and the number of people dead as a result and also the economic stress that Pakistan is facing then we can make analysis that its very usual within every five or ten years a big disaster hit any area and almost everything is destroyed, which can be the factor for its slow development. Due to these natural disasters Pakistani economical condition is very weak. Every year 3-4% of the budget is used for the rehabilitation from all the disasters. EARTHQUAKE: Like the earthquake in May 31, 1935 dead people reported were 60,000. After this much big disaster two earthquakes effecting less people struck the area in November 27, 1945 and December 28, 1974.The deaths reported were 4,000 and 4,700 respectively. Then up till 2005 no earthquake has strike the region but on October 5 the earthquake shaken the Northern side of Pakistan and has majorly destroyed the north side. More than 82,000 people were killed; 3.3 million people were left injured and homeless. All these incidences have place Pakistan in a very difficult situation. Everything was ruined badly and it took almost 5 to 10 years for rehabilitation. FLOOD: HISTORY: tells us that flood is affecting Pakistan area very frequently. Flood in 1950, 2,900 people were died, in Aug-1973 4, effected people were 800,000, flood in 2-Aug-1976 killed 5,566,000, in Jun-1977 people effected were 848, next year flood in Jul-1978 effects 2,246,000 people, similarly again the next year there was a flood affecting 1,000,000 poor people in august, then after 4 years gap flood came in 9-Aug effecting 6,184,418people, in Sep dead people were 12,324,024. Then again in 22-Jul-1995 flood death rated1,255,000 people and in 24-Aug-1996 dead people reported were 1,186,131.the history of flood does not end here. 3-Mar-1998 another flood destroys the area making1, 000 people to death. More over the flood destruction has added another year in the list like the flood of 2010 July- August. 2010 FLOOD: Now a days heavy monsoon rains have triggered flooding that has left over 1,500 people dead. The death toll may reach in the thousands as flooding has spread throughout the country and countless are missing due to flash floods and landslides. On top of this, more monsoon rains and flooding are on the way according to Pakistan meteorological department which may continue till end of August. Millions of homes in thousands of villages and towns have been destroyed. According to reports, over 13 Million people have been affected by this disaster more than the 2004 Indonesia Tsunami, 2005 Pakistan Earthquake, and 2010 Haiti Earthquake combined and destruction is increasing each day. Infrastructure such as dams, power stations, roads, bridges, schools, agriculture wells, and drinking water hand pumps have been severely damaged or destroyed. ECONOMICAL STATE OF PAKISTAN AFTER THE FLOOD DISASTER Economically Pakistan is a poor country and its economic growth faced a serious setback in fiscal year 2009 because of many factors such as the depressed consumer credit market, slow progress of public sector programmers, inflation, reduction in subsidies, threat of security, and instability in the state and energy crisis. Additionally, no attention was given to the agriculture sector. The exports declined by six percent and imports by 10 percent. The only thing that became a silver lining was the increment in remittances by 22%. Apart from ignorance, agriculture sector has shown credible results because of good weather. Major crops, wheat, rice and maize recorded impressive growth i.e. 7.7% against the target of 4.5%. Live stock and poultry also add to GDP as there was no viral disease this year. The economic condition is declining although positive efforts are made in this regard but due to the poor electricity condition and also the destruction of the infrastructure by the flood, the loss of many resource personals lives and their settled community now making it difficult for the country to sustain in the foreign market. As the infrastructure is totally destroyed so the import and transport is stopped. Even if there are temporary ways it is still a difficult task. Like helping people is more important in flood rather than import export. Food and living materials required on daily basis by the people, those who lost their everything, they are completely dependent on others for their survivals. Floods in the northern areas of Pakistan have caused devastating effects. Sindh province has been declared red alert for the upcoming floods. The Indus river flows from Indus to Karachi which has increased the threat to the villages and people living beside it. Authorities have evacuated more than half a million people to save their lives. One of the local said that Floods killed our people, they have ruined our homes and even washed away the graves of our loved ones. It is considered to be the worst floods in 80 years in the region which have killed at 1,600 people and affected about 12 million others. The president of Pakistan Mr Asif Ali Zardari who was on a foreign trip refused to take any criticism about the flood situation in Pakistan. He was of the opinion that he was being kept up to date about the relief efforts being made in the affected areas and the cabinet was directing the efforts. He further assured the assistance from his visiting countries i.e. UAE, France and UK, regarding the relief and rehabilitation of the flood effectiees. Mr President further said that, Im the one whos given all the powers from the presidency to the parliament. The parliament is in session the Senate is in session. Its the prime ministers responsibility, and hes fulfilling his responsibility. The point of concern here is that in Sindh two more days of rain are expected by the Pakistans meteorological office which could be dangerous and can cause high level of flood thus area is warned as red alert. Mr Amal Masud, the National Disaster Management Authority added that in the bad weather the relief operations are also effected thus helicopters could not fly to the affected areas for rescue and relief activities. Prime Minister Gilani declaring the 2010 flood as the worst Flood in Pakistans 63 year history and thus appealed for help from international organizations and has expected the locals to cooperate with the people helping them in this disaster. I would ask the international community to support and help Pakistan alleviate the sufferings of its flood-affected people, he said. Mr Gilani further added The next two days are very critical. Our top priority is to rescue people, to save their lives. But we will also provide them all facilities, and we will work for their rehabilitation. Much of the area along Indus River is submerged in the flood, still authorities have evacuated the rest of places to help people especially from the low-lying areas. Although some local famers were reluctant to leave their land and belongings but it was necessary to evacuate those places even by forcing them. The rescue mission is mainly headed by army and navy which will continue throughout the relief activities. In Sindh province more than half a million people have been evacuated. The Pakistans food supply will have long term effects due to the present floods as it has overwhelmed vast agricultural areas. Officials said it is the biggest disaster in the countrys history affecting 12 million people so far. The maximum level of water has reached in the Tarbela and Mangla dams which is a warning by engineers for the damage. Due to the breach of dam in northern Sindhs Kashmore district, thousands of residents took shelter on rooftops or in trees, it has also inundated large parts of the surrounding area with floodwater. The authorities are trying to prevent the breach of any other dam downstream, said by Shoaib Hasan in Karachi. One of the Pakistans largest gas field The Qadirpur is also threatened by the breach. Many people refused to leave their land, crops and homes which is a difficult moment even knowing the threat to further deluges. We are compelling them to evacuate because there is massive danger to their lives, Irrigation Minister Jam Saifullah Dharejo said. The current measure of the destroyed homes so far is 650,000, a 1.4m acre (557,000 hectares) of agricultural land has been flooded and 10,000 cows have died, declared by the officials. In comparison with the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, the present disaster 2010 flood was on a par, which killed almost 73,000 people badly damaged infrastructure. The flood affecties have been critical of the governments response and other relief activities feeling helpless and ignored. Floods killed our people, they have ruined our homes and even washed away the graves of our loved ones, Mai Sahat told the Associated Press near Sukkur, Sindh. Yet we are here without help from the government. The administration struggling to contain the Taliban and an economic crisis, is facing more pressure by the victims which bitterly accused the authorities of failing to come to their aid in this devastating disaster. Thus, the authorities and victims both are facing alot of issues along with other previous crisis. On the other hand, mountainous region of Ladakh was hit by flash floods which has killed 120 people with a ratio of 100 missing, building wee also damaged. The authorities of Indian-administered Kashmir are recovering bodies and highly concerned with a fast relief action. Whole of Pakistan is currently facing the devastating effects of flood. In Punjab hundreds of villages were submerged in flood water. It has destroyed homes, soaked the crops and threatened lives. Aid workers are also finding difficulty for the rescue delivery due to the nonstop raining and as a result more floods are coming out. As most of the affecties are poor people thus many organization is trying to help them in this hard time. UN also scrambles to provide food and other assistance to about 3.2 million affected people. This years monsoon season has caused the worst flood in Pakistan. Punjab is the richest and most populous province of Pakistan. The destruction in northwest was very volatile and the floodwater has hitted Punjab with the even high intensity. The rescue team of army tried to move villagers to higher ground through boats and helicopters. In the south of the province the tracts of Kot Addu and nearby area of layyah, water was so high that only upper most floors of some buildings and treetops were visible. During a visit to the flood affected area, the news reporters were briefed by Military spokesman Maj. Gen. Nadir Zeb that at least 30,000 people have been rescued from flood-hit zones in Kot Addu and areas over the previous 72 hours. He warned of more flooding as more rains were forecast in the next few days. People must cooperate with us, and they must leave those areas where floods are going to hit, he said. Muhammad Hanif, head of the National Weather Forecasting Center in Islamabad said that monsoon season in Pakistan usually lasts about three months, through mid-September. In a typical year, the country gets an average 137 mm (5.4 inches) worth of rainfall during the monsoon season. This year, it already has received 160 mm (6.3 inches). Hanif said the rains are already falling about 25 to 30 percent above normal rates. It was the hardest rain experienced by northwest can be called once-in-a-century rains. The death toll in the northwest region was highest. The significant amount of rain should be expected in Sindh province located at south and Punjabs at east. The Pakistans National Disaster management authority said that at least 47 people killed, 1,000 villages have been affected and 25,000 houses destroyed in Punjab since late July. The stretched crops of Pakistan are mainly grown in Punjab which is the Pakistans breadbasket were badly destroyed by the floodwater. Numerous crops have also been lost in the northwest. U.N has warned that due to loss of farm has produced the serious food shortage and thus World Food Program has estimated that over next month 1.8 million people will need to be fed. Along with the crops, buildings and houses all the communication lines are also destroyed and the roads and bridges are washed out. These all severe conditions are main hurdles in the relief and rescue operations. Including the United States, many foreign counties have stepped in to help the flood affecties. But still there are complains that aid is not reaching them fast enough or at all. This has disturbed the people more and results in aggressive behavior towards the authorities and helping organizations. The Map of Pakistan showing the area affected by the severe and moderate flood is given below. http://www.bbc.co.uk/nol/shared/spl/hi/world/10/pakistan_floods_2/img/pakistan_floods_01_464_2.gif FLOOD HANDLING PROCEDURE: After earthquake relief operation, govt of Pakistan had set up a disaster management cell for fighting out natural disasters like earthquake and floods. However, scale of this flood is much beyond the capacity of that disaster management cell. Likewise in earthquake 2005 Pakistan army has come up once again to help the affected masses. All of army is out of cantonments for carry out flood relief operation throughout the country. It is a big challenge which cannot be met at once. Operation has different phases like rescue operation for evacuation of dead and trapped in flood, arrangement for internally displaced persons to alternate locations, provision of basic living facilities like shelter, food and medication, return of IDPs ( Internally displaced persons) to their home location after flood will be over and finally rehabilitation of these IDPs to restart their normal lives. First phase to fight out flood is being undertaken by govt of Pakistan and Pakistan army. All resources are brought in to move affected population to safe locations. Pakistan army engineers corps is carrying out rescue operation for water trapped masses, whereas tent villages are established to accommodate IDPs at safer locations. After rescue comes the relief phase of operation which includes provision of basic living facilities to affected people. It is not easy task for govt of Pakistan to handle such a disaster which has caused more than 15 million IDPs which is over all larger displacement than tsunami and 2005 earthquake collectively. Whole Pakistani nation has come up to help affected population in terms of donation and volunteer relief work. Still it demands help from international community. UNO and other govt and non govt organization are pumping in to help the situation. In relief phase experts for shelter food and medical care have major role to play. There is no economic activity in flood hit areas and is not expected to restart soon. So more than 15 million IDPs are going to have adverse effects on Pakistan economy. Monsoon is not over yet and few more rain spells are expected in month of august country wide. This situation depicts that rehabilitation phase is not going to start immediately which alternatively mean extended relief phase. And once rehabilitations starts, keeping in view the severity of flood, its not expected to recover the damage and restart normal routine life for min of two to three years. After complete destruction of routine life and infra structure in flood hit area, there has been acute shortage of day to day usage items. Demand has incredibly increased than supply which is ultimately going to cause price hikes generally in all over the country and particularly flood hit areas. Inflation of prices and sink of economy is obviously going to create so many living as well as social problems like increase in crime rate, increase of hunger and diseases, lawlessness and exploitation. All above mentioned problems and issues pose great challenge for govt of Pakistan. It is a very serious issue which needs to be handled with great care. Govt of Pakistan will have to take both short term and long term measures to fight existing challenge and avoid such massive damage in future. As a short time and immediate measure, all efforts must be made to accelerate ongoing relief operation and provide basic needs to all the affected population. All govt machinery and international organization should gear up to work together on same lines with each others collaboration. All agencies must be on one grid with central monitoring so that wastage and duplication of effort be kept to minimum. There had been an existing structure after earthquake as disaster management cell, if all agency try to work together in order to do capacity building of disaster management cell instead of working in independent capacities, it can really boost the relief work. CONCLUSION Pakistan is a country which is already dependent on foreign aid to cope up with economic situation and also to fight back with the militants war in the country. So management of the situation and also the right decision are very important to cope up with the disasters. Its govt responsibility to start media campaign to motivate whole nation to work together , project the relief work being undertaken and reduce frustration of the affected. At the same time , govt should encourage all volunteer teams , local NGOs, oversea Pakistanis and international community and take them on board to fight this catastrophe. Key factor in fetching the max out of all will be transparency and fairness of the procedure to utilize the aid to benefit IDPs. It may not be easy for govt to afford rehabilitation of all these IDPs, it will be helpful to give incentives to international agencies for investments in all over the country as payback to their assistance in rehabilitation of IDPs. Keeping in view the terrain and weather of Pakistan, it is very likely to face flood in future as well. Short terms measure can never be a permanent solution to these catastrophes. There can be no way to avoid floods in future except making dams to store and control excessive waters. Construction of dams in Pakistan had been politicized over few decades. This is the right time for govt of Pakistan to take decision for constructions of dams at various locations throughout the country. This will not only help in avoiding flood but will also solve the biggest energy crises by production of electricity. All existing dams and canal system is old one and capacity of all rivers, canals and dams has been greatly reduced due to silt. In addition to construction of new dams, expansion and cleaning of existing dam and canal system is also imperative. There is no question that present flood has caused devastating effects on Pakistan economy which will take years to recover. But such catastrophes are always food of thought for future and prove to be turning points for nations to plan ahead. This is the time for govt of Pakistan to revise their economic policies and bring reforms. Nothing is more than safety of people, so serious issues relating survival of nations would not be politicized at all. We hope after recovering from this flood, Pakistan gets on to the track leading to benefit of whole of country instead of few.

Optical Fiber Sensors and Conventional Sensors

Optical Fiber Sensors and Conventional Sensors ABSTRACT This study deals with the comparison of the two types of sensors which are widely used in civil engineering, namely, conventional sensors and optical fiber sensors. Temperature and displacement are the two principal parameters which are measured with the aid of Fiber optic sensors. Bragg Grating, Interferometric, Intensity Sensors, and optical time domain reflectometry (OTDR) are some of the techniques which are used for sensing. In this study, various case studies have been undertaken and have been analyzed. With the aid of these case studies, a detailed analysis and comparison of the sensors is carried out. Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION In the last two decades, the world has witnessed a revolution in the sectors of optoelectronics and fiber optic communications. Various products such as laser printers and bar code scanners which have become a part of our daily usage, are a result of this technical revolution only. The reasons for the phenomenal growth of the fiber optics are many. The most conspicuous reason being the ability of the fiber optics to provide high performance and highly reliable communication links and that too at a very low bandwidth cost. As we see that optoelectronic and fiber communications industry has progressed a lot, and along with these industries fiber optic sensors have also benefited a lot from these developments. Due to the mass production in these industries, availability of fiber optic sensors at a low cost has been made possible in recent years. With their availability at affordable costs, fiber optic sensors have been able to enter the domain which was otherwise being ruled by the trad itional sensors. In recent years, the demand for the development of new materials to strengthen, upgrade and retrofit existing aged and deteriorated concrete structures has increased rapidly. The continuing deterioration and functional deficiency of existing civil infrastructure elements represents one of the most significance challenges facing the worlds construction and civil engineers. Deficiencies in existing concrete structures caused by initial flawed design due to insufficient detailing at the time of construction, aggressive chemical attacks and ageing of structural elements enhance an urgent need of finding an effective means to improve the performance of these structures without additionally increasing the overall weight, maintenance cost and time. In the last 50 years, a large number of civil concrete structures have been built; many of these structures, particularly in off-shore regions have now deteriorated and require repair in a short period of time. Moreover, the increase of traffic volume and population in many developing countries is causing the demand to upgrade existing concrete structures to increase. The damage of reinforced concrete (RC) structures through reinforcement corrosion and residual capacity are the most important issues that concern engineers. These problems occur not only in constructed concrete structures but also in structures strengthened by externally bonded steel reinforcements. In the past, the external steel plate bonding method has been used to improve strength in the tensile region of concrete structures with an epoxy adhesive and has proved to be successful over a period of 20 years. However, the use of steel reinforced plates and bars has its disadvantages including high corrosion rates, which could adversely affect the bond strength and cause surface spalling of the concrete, due to volumetric change in the corroded steel reinforcements. Since the early 1980s, fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) materials have been used as a replacement for conventional steel materials for concrete strengthening applications. In recent years, the interest in utilizing FRP materials in the civil concrete industry in forms of rods, plates, grid and jacket has grown increasingly. When an FRP plate with high tensile strength properties bonds on the concrete surface, it can strengthen the structure with minimum changes to its weight and dimensions. FRP offers substantial improvement in solving many practical problems that conventional materials cannot solve to provide a satisfactory service life of the structure. Unlike the conventional steel materials, FRP is corrosion resistant. The beneficial characteristics of using the FRP in concrete construction include its high strength-to-weight ratio, low labour requirement, ease of application, reduced traffic interruption during repair, cost reductions in both transportation and in situ maintenance for a long-term strategy. Its high damping characteristic also attracts more structural engineers to use these materials for seismic retrofitting. Due to the increasing use of FRP-plate bonding techniques in strengthening civil concrete structures, the interest in finding a suitable means of monitoring the structural health conditions of these strengthened structures has therefore increased substantially. Since strengthened structures are covered by the FRP plates, the mechani cal properties of the concrete may not be measured or detected easily through conventional nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods, such as strain measurements using surface mounted strain gauges or extensometers, radiography, thermography and acoustic emission methods, particularly in areas with microcracks and debonds underneath the externally-bonded plate. Besides, these structural inspection technologies, in certain cases, require special surface preparations or a high degree of flatness in the concrete surface. These requirements may be hard to achieve, particularly for an area that is exposed to a harsh environment. During the 1990s, a multi-disciplinary field of engineering known as ‘Smart Structures has developed as one of the most important research topics in the field.The structure is formed by a marriage of engineering materials with structurally-integrated sensor systems. The system is capable of assessing damage and warning of impending weakness in the structural integrity of the structure. Fibre-optic sensor technology is a most attractive device currently used in the aerospace and aircraft industry for on-line monitoring of large-scale FRP structures. The development of distributed fibreoptic sensors, which provides information on a large number of continuously distribution parameters such as strain and temperature is of great interest in most engineering applications.11,12 The sensors are embedded into a structure to form a novel self-strainmonitoring system, i.e. the system can self-detect its health status and send response signals to operators during any marginal situation during service. The embedding sensor, due to its extremely small physical size, can provide the information to a high accuracy and resolution without influencing the dimension and mechanical properties of the structure. Fibre-optic sensors present a number of advantages over the conventional strain measuring devices: (a) providing an absolute measurement that is sensitive to fluctuation in irradiance of the illuminating source; (b) enabling the measurement of the strain in different locations in only one single optical fibre by using multiplexing techniques;(c) having a low manufacturing cost for mass production; and (d) its ability to be embedded inside a structure without influencing the mechanical properties of the host material. A new development of ‘Smart materials and structures was driven by a strong demand for high performance over recent years. A system integrated into structures and being able to monitor its hosts physical and mechanical properties such as temperature and strain, during service is appreciated as a ‘Smart structural health monitoring system. The term smart material and structure is widely used to describe the unique marriage of material and structural engineering by using fibre-optic sensors and actuation control technology. The smart structure is constructed of materials that can continuously monitor their own mechanical and physical properties, and thereby, be capable of assessing damage and warning of impending weakness in structural integrity. This design concept results in improved safety and economic concerns regarding the weight saving and avoidance of over-designing of the structure in the long run. In Fig. 1, a schematic illustration of the structures possibilities created by the confluence of the four disciplines is shown. In the figure, a structure invested with actuating, sensing and neutral networking systems to form a new class of adaptive structures is shown. A structure with integrated sensor or actuator systems i s able to provide a self-structural health monitoring or actuating response, respectively. If both systems are integrated together into a structure, the sensor and actuators can act as nervous and muscular systems, like a human body, to sense the conditions such as mechanical strain and temperature of the structure (a smart structure) and to provide control of such changes of stiffness, shape and vibration mode (a controlled structure). The combination of these two systems into one structure is called a ‘Smart adaptive structure. This structure with a built-in neural networking system, like a brain, is then able to self evaluate the conditions, which are based on changes of structural parameters, thermal conditions and ambient environments to give an appropriate mechanical adjustment. This structure is commonly called an ‘Intelligent adaptive structure. 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY There has been an unprecedented development in the fields of optoelectronics and fiber optic communications. This in turn, has brought about a revolution in the sectors of telecommunication and various other industries. This has been made possible with the aid of high performance and reliable telecommunication links which have low bandwidth cost. Optical fibers have numerous advantages and some disadvantages. The advantages include their small size, resistance to electromagnetic interference and high sensitivity. On the other hand, some of its disadvantages are their high cost and unfamiliarity to the end user. But its great advantages completely overshadow its minor disadvantages. So, in this study an attempt is being made to compare the modern age fiber optic sensors with the conventional sensors. Also, with the aid of the case studies, the impact of fiber optic sensor technology on monitoring of civil structures is studied (McKinley and Boswell 2002). 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT In the past various kinds of sensors have been used in civil engineering for measuring temperature, pressure, stress, strain etc. And as the optical fiber sensors spread their wings, the civil engineering is bound to gain a lot from these modern sensors. Presently, there exist a number of problems with the existing civil infrastructures. These civil infrastructures such as bridges etc. have a pretty long service period which may amount to several decades or maybe even hundred years. Thus, during this time period, these structures suffer from corrosion, fatigue and extreme loading. Since concrete is used mostly in these civil infrastructures, it degradation is a major issue all over the world. The amount of degradation and the time when the degradation starts depends on various factors and is inevitable and unavoidable. Thus, in order to keep these civil structures in good condition, it becomes necessary that their condition be monitored and adequate steps be taken. Thus, we need sensors which can monitor these structures throughout the life of these structures. Thus, in this study the impact of fiber optic sensors is studied on civil structures. 1.3 OBJECTIVES There are a few objectives that are planned to be achieved at the end of this project, these are: A general discussion on the present state of structural monitoring and the need of fiber optic sensors in this field A general study on Comparison between Conventional Sensors and Optical Fiber Sensors Review of Case Studies on Fiber Optic Sensors application in Civil Engineering Structures 1.4 WORK PLAN Discussion, reading and observation Problem identification through reading, discussion and observation of the area studied Understand and identify the background of problem Studying feasibility and needs to carry out the investigation Identification of the Title for the project Identify the aim, objective and scope of the project Literature Review Understanding the background of the problem Understanding the history of the sensor technology in structural monitoring Carrying out literature survey on generic technologies of sensors for concrete structures Identify the types of sensor involved in monitoring the structural in civil engineering Identify the technique used and the working principle for each type of sensors (in particular optical fiber sensors) Case Study Choose the relevant and related case study for discussion Describe important aspects of case study Analyze the use of sensors in the case study Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations Discuss the similarities and differences Discuss the technical facets of sensor application Draw the overall conclusion for this project Give some recommendation for future Chapter 2: APPLICATIONS These days the fiber optic sensors are being used for a variety of applications, the most prominent of them being: Measurement of rotation and acceleration of bodies Measurement of electric and magnetic fields Measurement of temperature and pressure of bodies Measurement of acoustics and vibrations of various bodies Measurement of strain, viscosity and chemical properties of materials Measurement of surface condition and tactile sensing Measurement of sound , speed and proximity of bodies Determination of color and weight of different objects Measurement of linear and angular positions and this is widely utilized in civil engineering structures 2.1 ADVANTAGES OF FIBER OPTIC SENSORS Like with any other technology, there are both advantages and disadvantages using fiber optic sensors. The prominent advantages being: Fiber optic sensors are lightweight and this is of great importance in case of engineered structures Fiber optic sensors are of smaller size as compared to the traditional sensors Also, fiber optic sensors consume less power as compared to the traditional sensors Along with this, these sensors show high resistance to electromagnetic interference as compared to the traditional sensors On top of this, fiber optic sensors have enjoy high bandwidth and high sensitivity as compared to their traditional counterparts Fiber optic sensors are usually embedded in objects and due to this, these sensors can gain access to areas which till date remain inaccessible with the aid of traditional sensors Also, these sensors are accurate over a greater dynamic range as compared to the traditional sensors Fiber optic sensors are also capable of being multiplexed which again is a further advantage over their traditional counterparts Also, fiber optic sensors are capable of distributed measurements which gives them an edge over and above the traditional sensors Last but not the least, they also show greater environmental ruggedness as compared to the traditional sensors 2.2 DISADVANTAGES OF FIBER OPTIC SENSORS But all this is just one side of the coin. Though on seeing these advantages, it might appear that fiber optic sensors are way too advanced as compared to the traditional ones, but it is not exactly true. These fiber optic sensors also have some disadvantages due to which their advancement in todays world has been somewhat curtailed. The major disadvantages of fiber optic sensors are: Fiber optic sensors are quite costly as compared to the traditional sensors. Due to this, many people still consider traditional sensors to be a better option in cases where cost is a major consideration. Secondly, these sensors have come into prominence only in the last two decades. Due to this, people appear to be somewhat less educated regarding their usage and operations. And this unfamiliarity with the usage of these sensors, has proved to be a major hurdle in being able to capture the whole market. Also, these sensors are considered to be more fragile as compared to the traditional sensors which raises a question over their adaptability in extreme conditions Also with the fiber optic sensors there exists the inherit ingress/egress difficulty Fiber optic sensors usually have a non-linear output which is a cause for concern in some applications From the above discussion, we can see that as is the case with any other new technology, there are both merits and demerits of fiber optic sensors. But, what is worth considering here is that the advantages of this technology are much more than its disadvantages and are able to outweigh them. Also, from the demerits which are mentioned here, it is clear that these demerits are bound to wither away as this technology develops and gains more prominence. 2.3 APPLICATIONS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING Now we come to the discussion of the need and applications of the fiber optic sensors in the field of civil engineering structures. The monitoring of civil structures has a great significance in todays world. Today, we not only need to construct reliable and strong civil structures, but we also need to monitor these structures in order to ensure their proper functioning and their safety. Also, with the aid of the monitoring of various parameters of the structures, we can get knowledge about state of the building and by using this data, we can in turn plan the maintenance schedule for the structure (Mckinley, 2000). Also, this data can give us an insight into the real behavior of the structure and can thus take make important decisions regarding the optimization of similar structures which are to b e constructed in future. The maintenance of the structures can be approached in one of the two ways, namely: Material point of view- In this approach, monitoring is concentrated on local properties of the materials which are used in the construction. In this approach, we observe the behavior of the construction materials under the conditions of load, temperature etc. In this approach, short base length sensors are usually utilized. Also, it is possible to get the information about the whole structure with the aid of extrapolation of the data obtained from these sensors. Structural point of view- In this approach of measurement, the structure is viewed from a geometrical point of view. In this approach, long gauge length sensors appear to be the ideal choice. In this approach, we will be able to detect material degradation only if this material degradation has an impact on the form of the structure. In the recent years most of the research work which has been carried out in field of optic sensors has been in the field of material monitoring rather than structural monitoring. It is also worth mentioning here that, more sensors are required in the case of material monitoring as compared to structural monitoring. We know that civil engineering requires sensors that can be embedded in the concrete, mortars, steel, rocks, soil, road pavements etc. and can measure various parameters reliably. Also what should be taken into account is that these sensors should be easy to install and should not hamper the construction work or the properties of the structure in any derogatory manner. Also, it is common knowledge that at the sites of civil engineering, there exist the unavoidable conditions of dust, pollution, electromagnetic disturbances and of unskilled labor. Thus, the sensors to be used in these cases need to be rugged, should be inert to harsh environment conditions and should be easy to install and their installation could be carried out by unskilled labor. Along with all these things, it is imperative that these sensors are able to survive a period of at least ten years so that they can allow for a constant monitoring of the aging of the structure. Thus, we see that the fiber optic sensors ca n prove to be quite handful in civil engineering applications and structures. In the past various kinds of sensors have been used in civil engineering for measuring temperature, pressure, stress, strain etc. And as the optical fiber sensors spread their wings, the civil engineering is bound to gain a lot from these modern sensors (Vurpillot et al., 1998). Chapter 3: LITERATURE REVIEW ON FIBER OPTIC SENSORS Fiber optic sensors are of many kinds, but they can be broadly classified into two types, namely, extrinsic fiber optic sensors and intrinsic fiber optic sensors. There is a great deal of difference between these two types of fiber optic sensors and this difference is discussed in detail below. 3.1 EXTRINSIC FIBER OPTIC SENSORS This type of fiber optic sensor is also known as hybrid fiber optic sensor. As we can see in the figure above that there is a black box and an input fiber enters into this black box. And from this input fiber, information is impressed upon light beam. There can be various ways by which the information can be impressed upon. Usually this information is impressed upon the light beam in terms of frequency or polarization. This light which then posses the information is carried away by the optical fiber. The optical fiber now goes to an electronic processor. (Vurpillot et al., 1998) Here, in the electronic processor the information which is brought along by the fiber is processed. Though we can have separate input fiber and output fiber, but in some cases it is preferred to have the same fiber as the input fiber and the output fiber. 3.2 INTRINSIC FIBER OPTIC SENSORS The other type of optic fiber sensors is the intrinsic fiber sensors. An example of an intrinsic fiber sensor is shown in the figure below. The working of the intrinsic fiber sensors is somewhat different from the working of the extrinsic fiber sensors. In the intrinsic fiber sensors, the light beam is modulated and we rely on this modulation in the fiber in order to carry out the measurement. In the figure above, we can see an intrinsic fiber sensor or what is also known as all fiber sensor. 3.3 INTENSITY BASED FIBER OPTIC SENSORS While there exist various kinds of fiber optic sensors today, but the most common of these sensors is the hybrid type fiber optic sensor which depends upon intensity modulation in order to carry out the measurements (Zako et al., 1995) In the figure below, we can see a vibration sensor. In this vibration sensor, there exist two optical fibers. The functioning of this fiber optic sensor is quite simple. In this fiber optic sensor, light enters from one side. And when this light exits from the other side, it exits in the form of a cone and the angle of this cone depends on two parameters. The two parameters upon which the angle of this cone depends are: Firstly, it depends on the index of refraction of the core Secondly, it depends on the cladding of the optical fiber Also, the amount of light captured by the second optic fiber depends on a number of factors. The prominent factors on which the amount of light captured depend are: It depends on the acceptance angle It also depends on the distance â€Å"d† between the optical fibers Another type of fiber optic sensor is the flexible mounted mirror sensor. The important characteristics of this sensor are: In this case, a mirror is mounted which is used to respond to external parameters such as pressure. The modulation in intensity is caused the shifts in the mirror position. These sensors are used in a variety of applications such as door closures. In a door closure, a reflective strip is used. These sensors are used to measure small variations and displacements 3.4 LINEAR POSITION SENSORS In todays world, linear position sensors have become widely applicable. They are being used for various purposes (Zako et al., 1995). In many of the linear positioning sensors, wavelength division multiplexing is used. An illustration of the linear position sensor is shown in the figure below. The various components of this linear position sensor are: It consists of a broadband light source It consists of various detectors as shown in the figure above It also consists of wavelength division multiplexing element which acts as the principal component of this instrument. It also consists of an encoder card In the example above, a broadband light source is utilized. The light from this broadband source is carried to a wavelength division multiplexing system with the aid of a single optic fiber. The wavelength division multiplexing system is used to determine the linear position. Another linear motion sensing method which is very widely used today and is quite similar to the method discussed above is known as the time division multiplexing method. This method is illustrated with the aid of a figure shown below. In this method instead of a broadband light source a light pulse is used. Here, the combination of the returned signals takes place. As a result of this combination of the returned signals, the net signal which is produced moves onto the position of the encoder card. The main areas in which these intensity based fiber optic sensors have found application are: In commercial aircrafts In military aircrafts In these applications these modern sensors have performed quite well and are at par with the performance of the conventional sensors. But, because of the various advantages these sensors enjoy over and above the conventional sensors, these modern sensors are bound to replace the conventional sensors in the years to come. 3.5 LIQUID LEVEL SENSORS This is another type of intensity based fiber optic sensor. In the functioning of this sensor, the principle of total internal reflection is utilized. Thus, in these sensors the refraction index of the glass and the fiber occupy the pivotal role. These sensors can be utilized for a variety of purposes. The most prominent of its applications are: Measurement of pressure changes in gels Measurement of pressure changes in various liquids Measurement of refractive index changes in gels Measurement of refractive index changes in different types of liquids Measurement of the level of a liquid in a vessel and this application is utilized in various industries to measure liquid levels These sensors have an accuracy of about 5 percent and are gaining importance in various industries for their usefulness. 3.6 SOFO SENSORS These are fiber optic sensors which are utilized for strain measurement. These sensors have become quite popular owing to their innate merits. Out of all the fiber optic sensors, these sensors are the ones which are being used most extensively today. These sensors are being used to measure curvature and various other parameters in giant civil structures. These sensors form a part of the interferometric system (Vurpillot et al., 1998). Also, these sensors have the ability of measuring the parameters in an absolute manner using low-coherent light. The important properties of these sensors are: These fiber optic sensors enjoy a high resolution. The resolution of these sensors is 2  µm These sensors can be of varied lengths. Their length can be as small as 0.2m or can be as large as 20m. Also, these sensors have the property of being temperature compensated The SOFO system setup consists of a number of equipments. The main components of the SOFO system setup are: It consists of a fiber optic sensor which forms the crux of this monitoring system. It is the most important component of the monitoring system. It consists of a sensor chain with partial reflectors. One terminal of this sensor is connected to the coupler Another terminal of the sensor chain with partial reflectors is connected to the LED. The coupler in turn is connected to the photo diode and a mobile mirror. This whole portable reading unit is connected to portable computer terminal. This ensures that that the whole monitoring system can be taken to the location and can be directly used at site. These sensors can be utilized in two ways. They can either be embedded in the structure at the time of the construction of the structure. Or, they can used to measure the various parameters externally. Though in both the cases, that is, in case of embedding or in the case of external anchoring, the performance of the sensors remains the same, but still, in modern smart structures, embedding is preferred (Perez 2001). This is because, in the case of embedded sensors, the sensors continuously measure the parameters and are easy to manage. Whereas in the older structures, where embedding is not preferred, external anchoring is used. Chapter 4: CASE STUDIES Case study 1: Monitoring of San Giorgio pier San Giorgio pier is a massive concrete structure. Its length is about 400metres. It