Soil and Water Protection Essay Example for Free

Soil and Water Protection Essay Soil contamination or soil pollution is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals, or improper disposal of waste. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (such as naphthalene and benzo (a) pyrene), solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals. Contamination is correlated with the degree of industrialization and intensity of chemical usage. The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact with the contaminated soil, vapors from the contaminants, and from secondary contamination of water supplies within and underlying the soil. The main threats to soils are: extension of urbanization, acidification, accumulation of pollutants, nitrate in groundwater, loss of organic matter and deteriorating soil structure, soil compaction, and erosion. The latter is especially important in southern EC countries. Differences in the approaches adopted by different countries reflect differences in the nature and perceived seriousness of soil problems and the nature of the legislatory system. In particular, differences in the approaches of the Netherlands and the UK are discussed. The concept of ‘soil quality’ is discussed in relation to these two approaches. Suggestions are given for an ecologically based soil protection policy. This paper discusses current soil protection policies and their development in the EC, and the evolution of the associated concept of ‘soil quality’. It does not deal in any detail with the restoration of soils which have been degraded by the inadequacy of past policies or their implementation. Emphasis is given to northern EC countries because they have been especially active in the development of policies which protect land and soils. Some soil degradation processes are natural phenomena but they are exacerbated by all kinds of unsustainable human uses. Let us consider the main soil degradation processes in the European Union. Erosion: Water erosion affects 115 million hectares (ha) of soil, and wind erosion 42 million ha. The Mediterranean region is the most affected, but there is clear evidence that other parts of the 25 Member States (EU-25) also suffer significantly from this phenomenon. It is made worse by inappropriate farming techniques. Organic matter decline: Some 45% of soils in Europe have low or very low organic matter content. This is the case in particular in the South of Europe, but also in parts of France, the United Kingdom, Germany and Sweden. Organic matter is both an important soil constituent and the main source of food and energy for soil organisms. It is therefore of the basis for soil fertility. It also plays a crucial role in the structure of soil. Soil organisms feed on organic matter. Organic matter decline therefore leads to loss of soil biodiversity. Again, inappropriate agricultural practices accelerate this decline. Compaction: This is deterioration of the soil structure by mechanical pressure. It is made worse by excessive stocking rates (the density of animals grazing in a given surface) and the inappropriate use of heavy machinery. Salinisation: There is build-up of salt in some 3. 8 million ha of Europe’s soils. The regions most affected are Campania in Italy, the Ebro Valley in Spain, and the Great Alfold in Hungary. Stalinization is made worse by inappropriate irrigation and changes in vegetation. Landslides: Landslides occur most frequently in areas with highly erodible soils, clayey sub-soil, steep slopes, intense and abundant precipitation and land abandonment, such as in the Alpine and Mediterranean regions. To date, there is no data on the total area affected in the EU. Although they are natural phenomena, they are made worse by certain human activities. Landslides represent an increasing threat due to population growth, summer and winter tourism, and intensive land use. Contamination: Earlier industrialization and poor management practices have left a legacy of thousands of contaminated sites in Europe. There are an estimated 3. 5 million potentially contaminated sites in the whole of the Union, of which about 0. 5 million are expected to be actually contaminated and in need of remediation. Contaminants may accumulate to such an extent that they hamper soil functions. They may pollute groundwater and surface water and thus threaten drinking water supplies and aquatic ecosystems. Sealing: The permanent covering of soil (e. g. with roads or concrete) is the only intentional threat to soil. It affects 9% of the area of the EU and is made worse by urban and industrial sprawl and transport networks. It disrupts gas, water and energy flows and leads to irreversible loss of fertile soil. Several of these threats are exacerbated by the effects of climate change, which causes increases in temperature and extreme weather events. If some of these threats are combined, they may ultimately lead to desertification, which is mainly the result of different soil degradation processes partially associated with arid or sub-arid climatic conditions. The costs of soil degradation in the European Union are estimated at some â‚ ¬38 billion each year.

Evolution of the Nation & the Civil War Essay Example for Free

Evolution of the Nation the Civil War Essay The end of the Civil War brought about political and economic reform to the United States. Reforms in the Reconstruction Period were passed to foster and maintain economic activity, creating industries and expanding businesses, contributing to the boom of Industrial Revolution in the country. Years of political clout and debate remarkably laundered constitutional amendments for the black man’s rights (Oberholtze, 1917). Inventions paved the way to the development of new industries such as telecommunication, transportation, electricity and construction. The discovery, access to and processing of raw materials -facilitated by technology- allowed products to be transported from manufacturing factories to populated areas for distribution. Such enterprise development measures were supported by the improvement of the transport and communication system via paved roads, bridges, canals, railroads and the telegraph. New jobs were created to cater to the needs of the fast growing economy and population. Enormous infrastructures were built to accommodate the growing city dwellers and workers. Increase in profits of manufacturing industries encouraged a steady influx of immigrants working in the production lines (Engerman, 2000). Competition and increasing market goals forced companies to expand trade and operations in other countries, imperialism’s objective. Altogether, technological advancement, cheap labor and availability of capital led to America’s heavy industrialization. This period of rise and fall largely contributed to America’s development into a superpower. However, as a young nation, America was set back with undesirable impacts of industrialization. As production staff volume increased, conflict between workers and management grew. Industrial achievements due to aggressive marketing of manufactured goods and increased foreign trade introduced more white collar jobs facilitating corporate operations. Management and administrative work were better rewarded than assembly-line work, providing better opportunities for educated and powerful who came to enjoy lucrative lifestyles; while creating inequalities of wealth, discontent and rousing uprisings from laborers who formed unions to pursue their rights. Marxist leaders helped reshape capitalist thought and corporate laws. Growing market demand meant increasing supply needs leading to resource exploitation in some areas leaving irreparable damage to the environment. Concern for increased production overshadowed the seemingly abundant resources. Even large corporations who came to have leverage in policy-making used their power to generate more profit. Developments in transportation made it easy for people to move about creating a melting pot of US residents and migrants, gave way to explosion of population in urban areas, forming cities. The attraction of immigrants made uprisings in social injustices -competition and aggression- between old American settlers versus the new immigrants. Urban legislators targeted services to win the votes of increasing foreign workers maligning the democratic electoral process. Too aggressive amassing and building of wealth and power triggered the economic crash of 1873 when the government’s major investment bank, financer of government reconstruction loans and the Northern Pacific Railroad, crashed (Bancroft, 1902). For many years, new business management styles were practiced by corporations, every time cleaning up failed ventures with hopefully better alternatives. Many times, the finance and investment sector failed but lessons were dealt with outmost concern for capital and development-oriented sources. As population grew in cities, people moved to occupy the western territories. Development gradually followed increasing the number of states joining the union. At the same time, America had growing concern for the rapid growth of the British Empire. Following British example, America colonized territories and expanded the home base and also the market for its produce. American industrialists pushed for westward progression, integrating the continent-wide unified market reducing production cost and increasing value per output of production enabling American working class to earn higher than counterparts across the globe. Higher wage was initially purported by higher bid of wage levels experienced in the pre-industrialization era using slave-labor and eventually sustained by capitalism during the reconstruction period despite the increase in laborers and economic conflict many years after. Nevertheless, the labor force and farmers suffered greatly being dependent on businesses that supported their sources of income (McElvaine, 1993). The years of depression was a roller coaster ride for most corporate giants who still reap the most benefit even during economic downfall. During World War I, America tapped the international market (McElvaine, 1993). They penetrated into countries that did not have resources for food production. US production increased to cater to the needs of incapacitated economies. With its strong capitalist foundation, the US took advantage of World War I devastation across Europe and Japan (Olson, 1988). Forced to reduce trade barriers, Europe, Japan and their colonies were opened to globalization, with efforts initiated by American powers. Development of farm machinery automated farming practices and increased US production. The US became the world’s foremost producer of agricultural products in power economies like Europe and Japan were destroyed. The downside, farmers became all the more dependent on new businesses offering loans, transportation, equipment manufacturers and middle men who facilitated crop entry into international markets. Though, when the war ended, competition became stiff forcing America to make internal changes to beef up industrial efforts. This led to the development of advertising and marketing strategies encouraging people to consume. People wanted to get away from the prolonged depression and rode with the bandwagon, buying what advertisers offered. A mass culture of consumerism proliferated. This was made possible even for people who would not afford through the credit system, promoting instant access to commodities and luxuries and deferring payment with terms (McElvaine, 1993). Many US bankers reached across the globe and lent European countries for post war reconstruction. Economic instability after war did not go along US banks’ objectives and increased the risk of non-payment of loans. This would eventually lead to the Great Depression affecting businesses and communities worldwide. The entire financial industry suffered leading to property and business closures (Olson, 1988). The imposition of higher taxes on imports caused local markets to patronize locally manufactured goods. However, other countries retaliated by imposing high taxes on US exports, resulting in less foreign trade profits and eventually less power in international market penetration (McElvaine, 1993). The growing rate in stocks investment of major industrial companies caught the attention of many. Stock buying became a trend, relying in the belief that this will make people rich. The Stock Market Crash of 1929 marked the domino economic disruption made vulnerable by unequal distribution of wealth and banking problems. Renewed global strategy in achieving international trade through humanitarian and democratic efforts became America’s initiative to promote global security. Priority was also given to secure citizens through provision of social welfare. State-governed economic planning organized nationwide industrial regulations to propel the rise from the Depression. Powerful American businesses have lobbied for rights in exploring resources in other countries despite conservative and anti-colonialism proponents in US government limited US economic expansion. However, open trading between economies leveled the playing field in production and markets. The Progressive Era marked a turning point of US imperial power into a more humanist and democratic torch bearer in an effort to resolve the problems and issues brought about by industrialization and urbanization. Leaders focused on long-term goals, core values and implementation of development programs. Reformists, including President Franklin Roosevelt in the New Deal, sought to end monopolies, destroy political corruption and lessen the gap between the affluent and poor. Through the New Deal, authorized nationwide assistance to socio-economic development of individuals. Agencies were set up to provide employment, regulate mortgage and housing conditions, administered social security, consumer rights and raised funding for education, food and drug safety. Concerns of the working and business class were brought together (Mintz, 2006). Progressive ideologies affected political, social and cultural movements in the local and eventually made impacts on international human rights revolution and the initiation of international governing bodies to secure international relations in politics and economics. Radical changes in international standards and relationships were fostered. The UN and the NATO was founded in 1945 and 1948, respectively. The US became stronger despite its diversity. Operation Breadbasket was launched to increase employment of cultural minorities. From its indistinguishable character, America’s economic, social and technological transformation continues to awe the world. Today, its mandate for democracy and freedom still thrive and inspire other nationalities. References Bancroft, H. (1902). The Financial Panic of 1837. The Great Republic By the Master Historians Vol. III. Retrieved 11-5-2008 from http://www. publicbookshelf. com/public_html/The_Great_Republic_By_the_Master_Historians_Vol_III/thepanic_ce. html Engerman, S. and K. Sokoloff. (2000). Technology and Industrialization, 1790-1914. In The Cambridge Economic History of the United States, Vol. II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McElvaine, R. S. (1993). The Great Depression: America 1929-1941. Three Rivers Press. Mintz, S. (2006). Learn About the Progressive Era. Digital History. Retrieved 11-5-2008 from http://www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/modules/progressivism/index. cfm. Oberholtze, E. (1917). A History of the United States since the Civil War, Vol. 1. Macmillan. Olson, J. (1988). from World War I to the New Deal, 1919-1933. Historical dictionary of the 1920s. New York : Greenwood Press.

Causes of Material Failure

Causes of Material Failure Safety, reducing weight and maintenance costs of structural components, have always been a target in structural design, particularly where lighter structures result in higher load carrying capacity in industrial projects (Li et al. 2003). Since the high strength steel (HSS) is susceptible to weld defects, specifically in structures subjected to alternating stresses, the bolted connections are used as an effective and versatile joining technique in a variety of structures compared to welded equivalents (Jimà ©nez-Peà ±a et al. 2016). In this respect, various authors have investigated the performance of bolted joints under static loading condition. Despite this, the behavior of bolted joints under cyclic loading is still not well documented and fully understood (Mà ­nguez and Vogwell 2006). A deep concern that engineers have regarding the serviceability of commercial structures is the detrimental failure resulting from metal fatigue. As a matter of fact, the design philosophies have changed over recent years in a way that static strength has been replaced by fatigue life, durability and damage tolerance (Mà ­nguez and Vogwell 2006). Design rules for bolted connections are available in Canadian and American standards in conjunction with extensions for fatigue design considerations. Material failure happens in several forms, such as wear, corrosion, deformation, and fracture. When a component is subjected to a cyclic loading and results in the separation of the component into two or more pieces, this is plain fatigue or conventional fatigue. On the other hand, fatigue failure might occur due to a phenomenon known as fretting fatigue (Hà ¤mà ¤là ¤inen and Bjà ¶rk 2015). For example, one of the bolts that connects the bottom bracket to the support broke was fractured due to fretting fatigue and another was failed because of plain fatigue during the round four of accelerated fatigue test under 113 kN at 2 Hz of fatigue as shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. Therefore, it proves why an extensive research should be undertaken to investigate the precise mechanism of fretting fatigue in bolted connections. Fretting can occur when a pair of structural components are in contact under a normal load while cyclic tangential stress and relative displacement are applied alongside the contact surface. The phenomenon of fretting has been recognised initially as a surface damage phenomenon, what today are called fretting wear. During fretting the fatigue strength decreases to less than one-third of that without fretting (Hattori et al. 2011). This kind of fatigue can be seen widely in bolted and riveted connections. The fatigue life performance of bolted joints depends on several factors, such as size of the bolts, the number and arrangement of used bolts, the level of pretension or torque tightening applied to the bolts, the material plate thickness and surface roughness. Understanding in what way all these factors affect the fatigue life of a joint is fairly complex and has not been thoroughly investigated (Mà ­nguez and Vogwell 2006). The primary objectives of this literature review are (1) to review a comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms lead to fretting fatigue failure; (2) to determine the factors which influence the fatigue strength of bolted joints; (3) to indicate predictor tools used in order to estimate the fatigue lifetime of bolted joints; (4) to propose different approaches to address the aforementioned objectives. Fig. 1: Plain fatigue in bolt shank and fretting fatigue in bottom surface of bolt head Fig. 2: Plain fatigue Bolted connections are classified on basis of the mechanism in which the forces are transferred. When members are not pressed together by torque tightened bolts, the joint members can move freely (bearing-type bolted connection); thus, a large portion of load is transferred from bolt to the edge of plates as shown in Fig. 3. Elongation of the holes due to the stress transmitted through the bolts into the members might occur, if the stress levels within the hole are adequately high to cause plastic deformation. In this case, the major failure modes for a joint subjected to shear loading would be as shown in Fig. 4. On the other hand, when the plate members are compressed together by application of tightening torque on the bolts, the members Fig. 3: A bearing joint, with the bolt acting as a shear pin slippage could be prevented; therefor, the friction in contact interface transfers loads directly, instead of transmitting through the bolt to the plates hole. In this way, the connections benefit greatly with respect to the failure modes presented in Fig. 4, because the stress concentrations caused by the bearing of the bolts at the edge of plates hole will be lowered significantly (friction-type bolted connection). Fig. 5 illustrates the behavior of a friction-type joint under static loading in shear. The joint deforms elastically until the load reaches the critical value. At region (2) the joint begins to slip and it continues until the bolts start bearing on bolt holes. Elastic deformation happens again in region (3), until the yielding of plates or bolts occurs in form of plastic deformation in region (4). Eventually, joint will be failed at point (5) (Mà ­nguez and Vogwell 2006). Fig. 4: Failure modes for joints loaded in shear Fig. 5: Behavior of a joint under increasing loading The phenomenon of plain fatigue refers to the behavior of materials under the action of repeated stress and strain which distinguishes it from their behavior under monotonic or static stresses or strains. The plain fatigue is defined more precisely by the process in which the progressive localized permanent structural changes occur in a material subjected to conditions that produce fluctuating stresses and strains at some points and that culminate in cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuations. A plain fatigue failure is often very sudden, with no obvious warning; however, the mechanism might have been operating from the beginning of the components usage. Fig. 6: Crack growth path in sheet (a) single shear (b) double shear Fig. 6 shows fatigue crack initiation and propagation schematically. At short crack length where crack tip plastic zones are small, the crack path is usually flat. As crack grows, the crack tip plastic zone increases in size and the crack plane can turn to 45 ° shear or slant mode. This can be either single shear as shown in Fig. 6(a) or double shear as shown in Fig. 6(b). The aspects of plain fatigue fracture can be summarized as follows: The entire fatigue process involves the nucleation and growth of a crack or cracks to final fracture. The plain fatigue crack at fracture can be very small or very large, occupying less than 1 percent of the fracture up to almost 100 percent. The plain fatigue crack region can be distinguished from final fracture region by beach marks, smoothness, and corrosion, However, there are many exceptions. Microscopic plain fatigue cracks often grow in the plain of maximum tensile stress. However, for multiaxial loading, macroscopic fatigue cracks have also been observed on the plane of maximum shear (Stephens et al. 2000). It is one century since the problem of fretting first has undergone scientific investigation. Fretting was recorded first by Eden, Rose and Cunningham in 1911, who observed a red rust in the grips of fatigue machines by which they were testing steel specimens. The removal of the specimens was encumbered by the rust and its formation was mainly attributed to the varying stress between specimens and grips. This phenomenon was experimentally investigated first via Tomlinson in 1927, and coined the term fretting wear by which name it is generally known today (Scott 2013). Intensive study of the fretting process and mechanism has been undertaken during the 1950s and 1960s. Various theories regarding the nature of fretting have been summarized by Hurricks and then published in 1970. In 1974 Golego et al. recapitulated the results of experimental and analytical investigations conducted in the Soviet Union and other countries (Kovalevskii 1981). Based on these meticulous and intensive investigations, it appeared that the problem of fretting fatigue has adequately been solved, and it is of least interest. At the end of the 1930s and the beginning of 1940s fretting was observed in a new form, as a rapid lowering of the fatigue strength of metals. Warlow-Davis was the first scholar who studied the effect of fretting corrosion on fatigue life. Numerous investigations regarding this complicated phenomenon have been carried out subsequently, and interesting and informative results were obtained on basis of empirical and factual observations. Fretting fatigue has generally been considered in terms of the contribution of fretting to the fatigue strength of material. The recognition and interpretation of mechanism of fretting fatigue by means of this approach is more difficult. It thus appears more reasonable to attempt to postulate the mechanism of fretting fatigue on basis of a combination of the basic theory of fretting wear and t he fatigue failure of metals (Kovalevskii 1981). Fretting maybe defined as surface damage caused by low amplitude oscillatory sliding between two contacting surfaces. Fretting fatigue and fretting wear lie within this broad definition. Fretting is divided into two categories: fretting wear and fretting fatigue. The removal of material from contacting surfaces through fretting action is called fretting wear, whereas fretting fatigue is the reduction in fatigue life due to fretting surface damage (Bill 1983). Both types often occur within the same contact, but in different areas. Partial slip region is the area where contact pressure caused by normal force is high, while displacement amplitude caused by alternating tangential force is relatively small. In these areas, possibly fretting occurs as fatigue. On the other hand, those areas of the contact where the displacement amplitude is somewhat large compared to contact pressure are called gross slipping regime. In these areas fretting happens as fretting wear. There is another regime between these two regimes in a way that both mechanisms overlap, mixed fretting regime. Running condition fretting map is a useful tools (RCFM) used to present these regimes and the effect of those in the specimen failure can be translated into a material response fretting map (MRFM). Fig. 7 shows the schematic illustration of these maps (Hà ¤mà ¤là ¤inen and Bjà ¶rk 2015). Fig. 7: Schematic illustrations of (a) running condition fretting map (b) material response fretting map Fretting fatigue is a complicated tribological behavior of components which are in contact together having a small relative oscillatory motion. Due to high stress gradients generated at interface of connected surface caused by fretting, the fatigue lifetime of materials is reduced considerably compered to plain fatigue (Hojjati-Talemi et al. 2013). Fretting often occurs in structures subjected to oscillating tangential loads with low-amplitude and high frequency vibrations. Since fretting happens in counterpart surfaces, where crack initiation and crack propagation is hidden, and there is no easy access for inspection, crack detection is often impossible; hence, it is a particularly dangerous phenomenon. Sometimes the development of fretting damage is not detected until critical fracture or even catastrophic failure is occurred (Hoeppner 2006). Consequently, fretting fatigue heightens a serious concern for industrial structures, and analytical and numerical techniques for prediction of fretting fatigue are much in demand. Fig. 8 illustrates an example of failure due to fretting. Fig. 8: Typical critical locations for fretting fatigue crack initiations in (a) bolted flange and (b) riveted panels 4.1 Fretting wear and fretting fatigue-How are they related? The extent to which fretting wear correlates fretting fatigue is not fully cleared. The surface damage and contact stress distribution are similar in fretting fatigue and fretting wear for a given set of contact conditions. The remarkable feature which is evident in fretting fatigue, while is not for fretting wear necessarily, is an alternating bulk stress in one of the contact bodies. Furthermore, the edges of contact area or near slip/nonslip interfaces are the spots where fretting fatigue occurs consistently. The sequence of crack initiation and propagation in fretting problems involving fretting wear or fretting fatigue is important, because it generally causes microspalling in the former case and fatigue failure in the later (Bill 1983). Fig. 9 presents the loading conditions for a typical fretting contact. The significant feature which distinguishes fretting from gross sliding wear is the formation of a partial slip zone within the contact area when the tangential force is less that the frictional force. Eq. 1 The small displacement amplitude traps the wear debris and prevents those from existing contact zone. Different combinations of normal load and displacement lead to different forms of damage mechanism. Another comprehensive fretting maps proposed by Vingsbo in 1988 is plotted schematically in Fig. 10. The area is divided into various regimes and the dominant damage mechanism is specified in each zone as following: Fig. 9: Fretting contact and loading Partial slip regime or Stick regime: Although some slip occurs by application of tangential loading, most of the contact zone remains in stick. Fretting fatigue is the dominant mode of failure in this area; however, some wear occurs even when reciprocating motions are as small as 0.25  µm. Mixed stick and slip regime or mixed fretting regime: This regime is categorized by transition of the fretting contact from partial slip to the gross sliding. The dominant mode depends on whether the fatigue cracks grow fast enough to avoid removal by wear. Gross slip regime or gross sliding regime: Slip exists throughout the contact in this regime. The excessive volume of debris produced by fretting cycle, would prevent crack from propagating. Although the slip happens all around the contact, the debris formed during fretting cycle would trapped within contact area. This is a fundamental characteristic which distinguishes this regime from reciprocating sliding phenomenon. Reciprocating sliding: Once the amplitude meets a critical level, the wear mechanism will be similar to unidirectional sliding. The remarkable feature of reciprocal sliding wear is that for different amplitudes within reciprocal sliding, wear volumes is almost being kept constant, whereas the production of oxidized debris and a wear coefficient would increase rapidly by the increase of amplitude of motion (Patil 2010). Fig. 10: Typical fretting map for Hertzian contact Although, it is very difficult to establish a precisely distinct line of demarcation between fretting wear and reciprocal sliding wear, some literatures suggest that the critical amplitude of slippage in which the occurrence of reciprocating sliding wear will be imminent. Due to complexity of fretting phenomenon, different refrences presented different transition values for different materials. Vingsbo and Soderberg in 1988 as well as Ohmae and Tsukizoe in 1974 suggested the transition value lies at 300  µm, Toth suggested 50  µm, while Lewis and Didsbury concluded transition value equal to 70  µm (Chen and Zhou 2001).

Amendments :: essays research papers

Amendment I (1791) Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. Amendment II (1791) A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. Amendment III (1791) No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Amendment IV (1791) The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Amendment V (1791) No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. Amendment VI (1791) In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. Amendment VII (1791) In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

The OReily Factor :: essays research papers

The O'Reilly Factor   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I choose the O’Reilly Factor because it’s about the only book that appealed to me. As well as the one the few narrators I could listen to for 5 hours. Besides the only other television shows I watch are reruns of the Simpson’s and Senfied. So the O’Reilly factor seemed like a logical choice for me.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The book is basically Bill O’Reilly’s viewpoint on just about everything such as politics, raising children, and taken responsibility for your own actions. Personally I really liked the book but that’s just me I would not recommend to anyone who doesn’t like Fox News Channel. The book incorporates a lot of his television show. In a lot of ways it was long a really long episode of the â€Å"Factor†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the book Bill talks a lot of about his childhood and how he was raised in working class family in New York. The friendships he has maintained since his childhood as well as what it takes to be a good friend in his mind.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The book starts out with him talking about being a high school teacher and when he was in college at Boston University looking across the river at MIT and Harvard and then given a chance to go back to get his masters at Harvard and then studying his now new counterparts. Growing up in a working class family his was not accustom to the Harvard way of life or thinking. What he means by that is since he did not come from a wealthy family when he graduated college he didn’t have his fathers friends lining up to interview him. Basically he has always had to work to get where he is today. And that holds true today if you are born into any class besides the wealthy upper class you have to work for everything and speak up for yourself if necessary. Which in the book Bill mentions how his mouth has gotten him into some trouble; for insistence when he first became a journalist he had four jobs in five years mainly because he would speak up when something was done tha t wasn’t right. Trying to make right wrongs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first part of the book is a lot about the classes that exist in America. Why they exist for example the rich upper class usually the politicians in America don’t seat around at the country club wondering how to get drugs out of the ghetto.

Free College Essays - Hester as Role Model in Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter :: Scarlet Letter essays

The Scarlet Letter – Hester as Community Role Model â€Å"Woman, it is thy badge of shame!" (107). Governor Bellingham was describing the scarlet letter to Hester while they were discussing if the punishments that Hester had to go through were adequate enough for the crime. Hester was living in the outskirts of the city in a small abandoned cottage for several years with the only thing that had any monetary value in her life, her child and the product of committing adultery, Pearl. She and her little Pearl were shunned from the community for her acts. In the Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne, Hester is punished in more than one way, and she is able to deal with it openly so the community will, over time, forgive her. The most obvious subject of punishment that Hester had to cope with is wearing the scarlet letter. "By the point which drew all eyes and, as it were, transfigured the wearer. . . was the scarlet letter, so fantastically embroidered and illuminated upon her bosom" (51-52). Hester wrought the scarlet letter before she stood on the scaffold. When Pearl asks her why she wears the letter she replies that she wears it for its gold thread. Hester wears the letter for many years, even after the people in the community care anymore, so that she will be fully forgiven for her sin. In the beginning of the story, Hester is faced with serving the temporary part of her sentence, standing on the scaffold in front of the whole town. "It was a circumstance to be noted, on the summer morning when our story begins its course, that the women of whom there were several in the crowd, appeared to take a peculiar interest in whatever penal infliction might be expected to ensue" (48). The citizens of the town had gathered to criticize Hester as she stood on the scaffold, and many of the town’s women were discussing the simplicity of Hester’s sentence, since the usual punishment for committing adultery is the death penalty. Although she had to put up with the remarks about her for three hours while she was standing on the scaffold, the ridicule followed for many years to come. Hester and her daughter were thought upon as sinners long after Hester had served her sentence.

Enders Game Essay

Human beings are free except when humanity needs them. Maybe humanity needs you. To do something. Maybe humanity needs me—to find out what you’re good for. We might both do despicable things, Ender, but if humankind survives, then we were good tools.† Graff is explaining to Ender the philosophy behind everything they are doing. Although Ender does not know it at the time, this is the same reasoning that the adults will use to manipulate the children time and time again. Ender objects to this idea, because he believes that people are more than just tools, but nevertheless it is the pervading ideology of the I.F. throughout the book. This philosophy justifies doing terrible things in the name of humanity, and it also means that individuals will have to make awful sacrifices for their species. â€Å"In the moment when I truly understand my enemy, understand him well enough to defeat him, then in that very moment I also love him. I think it’s impossible to really understand somebody, what they want, what they believe, and not love them the way they love themselves.† Ender is telling Valentine why he hates himself. He is able to understand his enemies better than anyone else, but once he understands them he destroys them. With such tremendous empathy, even in coming to understand his worst enemies Ender loves them. This means that when he crushes them he is hurting himself in the process. Ender does not want to have enemies, so that he will not be forced to hurt anybody. He will love even those who seem to be his most bitter enemies when he properly understands them. But in the situations Ender has been in he has no choice other than destroying those enemies. At the end of the book, when Ender comes to truly understand the buggers, he is able to try to help them. He has already done them great harm, but now he can be happy because he has a chance to undo what he did to them. â€Å"So the whole war is because we can’t talk to each other.† â€Å"If the other fellow can’t tell you his story, you can never be sure he isn’t trying to kill you.† â€Å"What if we just left them alone?† â€Å"Ender, we didn’t go to them first, they came to us. If they were going to leave us alone, they could have done it a hundred years ago, before the First Invasion.† â€Å"Maybe they didn’t know we were intelligent life. Maybe—† This conversation occurs when Graff tells Ender his theory of why they are at war with the buggers. Graff tells Ender that since the buggers communicate through thought, they probably cannot understand that humans are thinking beings. Ender therefore wants to know why this cannot be remedied.